Prevalence and demographic characteristics of strabismus in adults
Medical hypothesis, discovery & innovation in optometry,
Vol. 6 No. 3 (2025),
21 November 2025
,
Page 112-120
https://doi.org/10.51329/mehdioptometry230
Abstract
Background: Strabismus is a common ocular disorder and a major cause of visual impairment and amblyopia. Its prevalence varies widely across populations and may differ by age, ethnicity, and underlying risk factors. Despite its clinical and psychosocial impact, data on strabismus in Iranian adults remain limited. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of strabismus and its associated demographic factors in southeastern Iran.Methods: This cross-sectional analysis used baseline data from an adult eye cohort in Zahedan, southeastern Iran. A stratified cluster sampling design, based on socioeconomic status, was used to recruit residents aged 35–70 years between 2015 and 2019. Of 10 016 screened individuals, 9296 met inclusion criteria, which required Iranian nationality, ?9 months of local residency, and completion of baseline assessments; participants with prior ocular surgery or active ocular disease were excluded. All participants completed a standardized ocular history questionnaire and underwent comprehensive visual assessment, including Snellen visual acuity testing, objective and subjective non-cycloplegic refraction, automated lensometry for habitual correction, external examination, slit-lamp biomicroscopy, and Goldmann applanation tonometry. Ocular alignment was evaluated using cover–uncover and alternate cover tests at distance and near. Strabismus was classified based on manifest deviations detected under best correction.
Results: Among 9296 adults, the overall prevalence of strabismus was 2.8% (262 cases; 95% CI: 2.5–3.2). The prevalence of exotropia, esotropia, hypertropia, intermittent exotropia, and intermittent esotropia was 1.3% (129 cases, 95% CI: 0.00–3.20), 0.2% (18 cases, 95% CI: 0.00–2.20), 0.3% (26 cases, 95% CI: 0.00–2.40), 0.8% (77 cases, 95% CI: 0.00–2.70), and 0.1% (12 cases, 95% CI: 0.00–1.80), respectively. Strabismus occurred most frequently in the 45–54-year age group (n = 92, 35.1%) and least often in those aged 65–75 years (n = 14, 8.3%). Women accounted for 61.8% (n = 162) of all cases, with all subtypes more common in women except esotropia, which was equally distributed. Strabismus was most frequent among individuals with high school education (n = 89, 34.0%) and least common in those with university degrees (n = 46, 17.6%). The Sistani ethnic group demonstrated the highest prevalence (n = 141, 53.8%) across all subtypes.
Conclusions: Strabismus affected 2.8% of adults, with exotropia the most common subtype. Prevalence varied by age, sex, education, and ethnicity, with the highest burden in adults aged 45–54 years and among the Sistani group. Most cases were previously undiagnosed, underscoring the need for targeted screening and early detection. Ongoing longitudinal follow-up will clarify incidence, progression, and treatment outcomes, supporting improved clinical decision-making, resource allocation, and long-term visual outcomes.
Keywords:
- squint
- convergent strabismus
- divergent strabismus
- esodeviation
- exodeviation
- adults
- cohort study
- prevalences
References
1. Suh DW, Shahraki K. Vision Screening Claims for Young Children in the United States. Pediatrics. 2023 Sep 1;152(3):e2023062804. doi: 10.1542/peds.2023-062804. PMID: 37605873.
2. Swanson MW, McGwin G. Visual impairment and functional status from the 1995 National Health Interview Survey on Disability. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2004 Jul;11(3):227-39. doi: 10.1080/09286580490514540. PMID: 15370554.
3. Robaei D, Rose KA, Kifley A, Cosstick M, Ip JM, Mitchell P. Factors associated with childhood strabismus: findings from a population-based study. Ophthalmology. 2006 Jul;113(7):1146-53. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2006.02.019. Epub 2006 May 3. PMID: 16675019.
4. Kanukollu VM, Sood G. Strabismus. 2023 Nov 13. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 32809617.
5. Shirzadi K, Amirdehi AR, Makateb AL, Shahraki K, Khosravifard K. Studying the effect of tropicamide various concentrations on routine dilation of the pupil. Biomedical and Pharmacology Journal. 2015 Dec 28;8(2):885-9. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.13005/bpj/839 (Link).
6. Azonobi IR, Olatunji FO, Adido J, Osayande OO. Vision of strabismic children in Ilorin, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Ophthalmology. 2008 Nov 12;16(1):12-5. doi: 10.4314/njo.v16i1.11952 (Link)
7. Mason A, Joronen K, Lindberg L, Kajander M, Fagerholm N, Rantanen A. Strabismic Adults' Experiences of Psychosocial Influence of Strabismus-A Qualitative Study. SAGE Open Nurs. 2024 Sep 5;10:23779608241278456. doi: 10.1177/23779608241278456. PMID: 39246297; PMCID: PMC11378177.
8. Buffenn AN. The impact of strabismus on psychosocial health and quality of life: a systematic review. Surv Ophthalmol. 2021 Nov-Dec;66(6):1051-1064. doi: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2021.03.005. Epub 2021 Mar 25. PMID: 33773997.
9. Hashemi H, Yekta A, Jafarzadehpur E, Ostadimoghaddam H, Eshrati B, Mohazzab-Torabi S, Khabazkhoob M, Soroush S. The prevalence of strabismus in 7-year-old schoolchildren in Iran. Strabismus. 2015;23(1):1-7. doi: 10.3109/09273972.2014.999795. Epub 2015 Jan 13. PMID: 25584828.
10. Adejumo OO, Olusanya BA, Ajayi BG. Ocular Disorders among Preschool Children in Southwest Nigeria. Middle East Afr J Ophthalmol. 2021 Apr 30;28(1):23-28. doi: 10.4103/meajo.MEAJO_191_19. PMID: 34321819; PMCID: PMC8270023.
11. Faghihi M, Ostadimoghaddam H, Yekta AA. Amblyopia and strabismus in Iranian schoolchildren, Mashhad. Strabismus. 2011 Dec;19(4):147-52. doi: 10.3109/09273972.2011.622341. PMID: 22107119.
12. Al-Rowaily MA. Prevalence of refractive errors among pre-school children at King Abdulaziz Medical City, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Saudi J Ophthalmol. 2010 Apr;24(2):45-8. doi: 10.1016/j.sjopt.2010.01.001. Epub 2010 Apr 2. PMID: 23960874; PMCID: PMC3729549.
13. Chia A, Dirani M, Chan YH, Gazzard G, Au Eong KG, Selvaraj P, Ling Y, Quah BL, Young TL, Mitchell P, Varma R, Wong TY, Saw SM. Prevalence of amblyopia and strabismus in young singaporean chinese children. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2010 Jul;51(7):3411-7. doi: 10.1167/iovs.09-4461. Epub 2010 Mar 5. PMID: 20207979; PMCID: PMC3979488.
14. Multi-ethnic Pediatric Eye Disease Study Group. Prevalence of amblyopia and strabismus in African American and Hispanic children ages 6 to 72 months the multi-ethnic pediatric eye disease study. Ophthalmology. 2008 Jul;115(7):1229-1236.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2007.08.001. Epub 2007 Oct 22. PMID: 17953989; PMCID: PMC4839485.
15. McKean-Cowdin R, Cotter SA, Tarczy-Hornoch K, Wen G, Kim J, Borchert M, Varma R; Multi-Ethnic Pediatric Eye Disease Study Group. Prevalence of amblyopia or strabismus in asian and non-Hispanic white preschool children: multi-ethnic pediatric eye disease study. Ophthalmology. 2013 Oct;120(10):2117-24. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2013.03.001. Epub 2013 May 19. PMID: 23697956; PMCID: PMC4848013.
16. Arnold RW. Amblyopia risk factor prevalence. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 2013 Jul-Aug;50(4):213-7. doi: 10.3928/01913913-20130326-01. Epub 2013 Apr 2. PMID: 23556991.
17. Han KE, Baek SH, Kim SH, Lim KH; Epidemiologic Survey Committee of the Korean Ophthalmological Society. Prevalence and risk factors of strabismus in children and adolescents in South Korea: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2008-2011. PLoS One. 2018 Feb 14;13(2):e0191857. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0191857. PMID: 29444106; PMCID: PMC5812601.
18. Curtis TH, McClatchey M, Wheeler DT. Epidemiology of surgical strabismus in Saudi Arabia. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2010 Oct;17(5):307-14. doi: 10.3109/09286586.2010.508351. PMID: 20868257.
19. Friedman DS, Repka MX, Katz J, Giordano L, Ibironke J, Hawse P, Tielsch JM. Prevalence of amblyopia and strabismus in white and African American children aged 6 through 71 months the Baltimore Pediatric Eye Disease Study. Ophthalmology. 2009 Nov;116(11):2128-34.e1-2. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2009.04.034. Epub 2009 Sep 16. PMID: 19762084; PMCID: PMC2783780.
20. Garvey KA, Dobson V, Messer DH, Miller JM, Harvey EM. Prevalence of strabismus among preschool, kindergarten, and first-grade Tohono O'odham children. Optometry. 2010 Apr;81(4):194-9. doi: 10.1016/j.optm.2009.10.010. PMID: 20346891; PMCID: PMC2847803.
21. Gursoy H, Basmak H, Yaz Y, Colak E. Vision screening in children entering school: Eskisehir, Turkey. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2013 Aug;20(4):232-8. doi: 10.3109/09286586.2013.808672. PMID: 23865604.
22. Hong JD, Choi EH, Suh S, Bui JH, Storch AM, Walker KR, Shahraki K, Yanez C, Torres D, Espinoza J, Molina I, Suh DW. UCI EyeMobile Exam Findings from School Children Following on-Site Screening. Clin Ophthalmol. 2024 Jun 6;18:1667-1678. doi: 10.2147/OPTH.S460879. PMID: 38860118; PMCID: PMC11164085.
23. Tegegne MM, Fekadu SA, Assem AS. Prevalence of Strabismus and Its Associated Factors Among School-Age Children Living in Bahir Dar City: A Community-Based Cross-Sectional Study. Clin Optom (Auckl). 2021 Apr 8;13:103-112. doi: 10.2147/OPTO.S300124. PMID: 33854396; PMCID: PMC8041646.
24. Wang Y, Zhao A, Zhang X, Huang D, Zhu H, Sun Q, Yu J, Chen J, Zhao X, Li R, Han S, Dong W, Ma F, Chen X, Liu H. Prevalence of strabismus among preschool children in eastern China and comparison at a 5-year interval: a population-based cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2021 Oct 19;11(10):e055112. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2021-055112. PMID: 34667017; PMCID: PMC8527110.
25. Greenberg AE, Mohney BG, Diehl NN, Burke JP. Incidence and types of childhood esotropia: a population-based study. Ophthalmology. 2007 Jan;114(1):170-4. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2006.05.072. Epub 2006 Oct 27. PMID: 17070595.
26. Hashemi H, Nabovati P, Yekta A, Ostadimoghaddam H, Behnia B, Khabazkhoob M. The Prevalence of Strabismus, Heterophorias, and Their Associated Factors in Underserved Rural Areas of Iran. Strabismus. 2017 Jun;25(2):60-66. doi: 10.1080/09273972.2017.1317820. Epub 2017 May 2. PMID: 28463575.
27. Yekta A, Fotouhi A, Hashemi H, Dehghani C, Ostadimoghaddam H, Heravian J, Derakhshan A, Yekta R, Rezvan F, Behnia M, Khabazkhoob M. The prevalence of anisometropia, amblyopia and strabismus in schoolchildren of Shiraz, Iran. Strabismus. 2010 Sep;18(3):104-10. doi: 10.3109/09273972.2010.502957. PMID: 20843187.
28. Yekta A, Hashemi H, Norouzirad R, Ostadimoghaddam H, Nabovati P, Dadbin N, Nirouzad F, Shir-Alivand E, Khabazkhoob M. The Prevalence of Amblyopia, Strabismus, and Ptosis in Schoolchildren of Dezful. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2017 Jan/Feb;27(1):109-112. doi: 10.5301/ejo.5000795. PMID: 27228971.
29. Yekta A, Hashemi H, Ostadimoghaddam H, Haghighi B, Shafiee H, Mehravaran S, Nabovati P, Asharlous A, Khabazkhoob M. Strabismus and Near Point of Convergence and Amblyopia in 4-6 Year-Old Children. Strabismus. 2016 Sep;24(3):113-9. doi: 10.1080/09273972.2016.1205103. Epub 2016 Aug 2. PMID: 27485705.
30. Wu J, Wang N. Prevalence and characteristics of amblyopia, strabismus, and refractive errors among patients aged 3-16 years in Shanghai, China: a hospital-based population study. BMC Ophthalmol. 2024 Jun 7;24(1):239. doi: 10.1186/s12886-024-03477-8. PMID: 38849757; PMCID: PMC11157824.
31. Agaje BG, Delelegne D, Abera E, Desta K, Girum M, Mossie M, Eshetu D, Hirigo AT. Strabismus prevalence and associated factors among pediatric patients in southern Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study. J Int Med Res. 2020 Oct;48(10):300060520964339. doi: 10.1177/0300060520964339. PMID: 33076734; PMCID: PMC7583393.
32. Miyata M, Kido A, Miyake M, Tamura H, Kamei T, Wada S, Ueshima H, Kawai K, Nakao S, Yamamoto A, Suda K, Nakano E, Tagawa M, Tsujikawa A. Prevalence and Incidence of Strabismus by Age Group in Japan: A Nationwide Population-Based Cohort Study. Am J Ophthalmol. 2024 Jun;262:222-228. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2023.11.022. Epub 2023 Nov 30. PMID: 38040322.
33. Donnelly UM, Stewart NM, Hollinger M. Prevalence and outcomes of childhood visual disorders. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2005 Aug;12(4):243-50. doi: 10.1080/09286580590967772. PMID: 16033745.
34. Chia A, Roy L, Seenyen L. Comitant horizontal strabismus: an Asian perspective. Br J Ophthalmol. 2007 Oct;91(10):1337-40. doi: 10.1136/bjo.2007.116905. Epub 2007 May 2. PMID: 17475715; PMCID: PMC2000992.
35. Pai A, Mitchell P. Prevalence of amblyopia and strabismus. Ophthalmology. 2010 Oct;117(10):2043-4; author reply 2044. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2010.06.028. PMID: 20888491.
36. Matsuo T, Matsuo C. The prevalence of strabismus and amblyopia in Japanese elementary school children. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2005 Feb;12(1):31-6. doi: 10.1080/09286580490907805. PMID: 15848918.
37. Qanat AS, Alsuheili A, Alzahrani AM, Faydhi AA, Albadri A, Alhibshi N. Assessment of Different Types of Strabismus Among Pediatric Patients in a Tertiary Hospital in Jeddah. Cureus. 2020 Dec 8;12(12):e11978. doi: 10.7759/cureus.11978. PMID: 33425550; PMCID: PMC7790318.
38. Pan CW, Chen X, Zhu H, Fu Z, Zhong H, Li J, Huang D, Liu H. School-based assessment of amblyopia and strabismus among multiethnic children in rural China. Sci Rep. 2017 Oct 17;7(1):13410. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-13926-8. PMID: 29042639; PMCID: PMC5645399.
39. Alipour F, Hashemi H, Lashay A, Jafari F, Motamed-Gorji N, Jabbarvand Behrouz M, Mirzaei M, Alizade Y, Soleymani MR, Shoja MR, Shahraki K, Khataminia GR, Poustchi H, Malekzadeh R. PERSIAN Eye Cohort Study (PECS): Design, Methodology. Arch Iran Med. 2023 Aug 1;26(8):459-469. doi: 10.34172/aim.2023.70. PMID: 38301109; PMCID: PMC10685732.
40. Tipton E. Stratified sampling using cluster analysis: a sample selection strategy for improved generalizations from experiments. Eval Rev. 2013 Apr;37(2):109-39. doi: 10.1177/0193841X13516324. Epub 2014 Mar 18. PMID: 24647924.
41. Hennig C, Liao TF. How to find an appropriate clustering for mixed-type variables with application to socio-economic stratification. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series C: Applied Statistics. 2013 May;62(3):309-69. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9876.2012.01066.x (Link)
42. Alipour F, Mohammadzadeh M, Jafari F, Lashay A, Yaseri M, Motamed-Gorji N, Alizadeh Y, Soleimani M, Mirzaei M, Shahraki K, Salimpour S, Shoja MR, Khataminia G, Tahkor A, Tavakoli R, Somi MH, Mansour-Ghanaei F, Joukar F, Ansari-Moghaddam A, Saki N, Hashemi H. Distribution and prevalence of refractive error in Iranian adult population results of the PERSIAN eye cohort study PECS. Sci Rep. 2024 Jun 24;14(1):14515. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-65328-2. PMID: 38914645; PMCID: PMC11196648.
43. Kawasaki AK. Diagnostic approach to pupillary abnormalities. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2014 Aug;20(4 Neuro-ophthalmology):1008-22. doi: 10.1212/01.CON.0000453306.42981.94. PMID: 25099106; PMCID: PMC10563972.
44. Glazer-Hockstein C, Brucker AJ. The detection of a relative afferent pupillary defect. Am J Ophthalmol. 2002 Jul;134(1):142-3. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9394(02)01503-9. PMID: 12095831.
45. Mestre C, Otero C, Díaz-Doutón F, Gautier J, Pujol J. An automated and objective cover test to measure heterophoria. PLoS One. 2018 Nov 1;13(11):e0206674. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0206674. PMID: 30383846; PMCID: PMC6211723.
46. Sprunger DT, Lambert SR, Hercinovic A, Morse CL, Repka MX, Hutchinson AK, Cruz OA, Wallace DK; American Academy of Ophthalmology Preferred Practice Pattern Pediatric Ophthalmology/Strabismus Panel. Esotropia and Exotropia Preferred Practice Pattern®. Ophthalmology. 2023 Mar;130(3):P179-P221. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2022.11.002. Epub 2022 Dec 14. PMID: 36526451; PMCID: PMC10655158.
47. Hashemi H, Pakzad R, Nabovati P, Azad Shahraki F, Ostadimoghaddam H, Aghamirsalim M, Pakbin M, Yekta A, Khoshhal F, Khabazkhoob M. The prevalence of tropia, phoria and their types in a student population in Iran. Strabismus. 2020 Mar;28(1):35-41. doi: 10.1080/09273972.2019.1697300. Epub 2019 Dec 23. PMID: 31868064.
48. Hegde SA, B S J, V H K. Prevalence of strabismus among school going children in India. Bioinformation. 2025 Mar 31;21(3):410-413. doi: 10.6026/973206300210410. PMID: 40599943; PMCID: PMC12208243.
49. Derakhshan A, Sabermoghaddam A, Abdolahian M, Ganavati SZ, Shakeri MT, Zareei A, Bamdad S. The Strabismus Prevalence in a Random Sample of Iran's Northeastern Population. Pakistan Journal of Ophthalmology. 2024;40(1). doi: 10.36351/pjo.v40i1.1688 (Link)
50. Williams C, Northstone K, Howard M, Harvey I, Harrad RA, Sparrow JM. Prevalence and risk factors for common vision problems in children: data from the ALSPAC study. Br J Ophthalmol. 2008 Jul;92(7):959-64. doi: 10.1136/bjo.2007.134700. Epub 2008 May 14. PMID: 18480306.
51. Drover JR, Kean PG, Courage ML, Adams RJ. Prevalence of amblyopia and other vision disorders in young Newfoundland and Labrador children. Can J Ophthalmol. 2008 Feb;43(1):89-94. doi: 10.3129/i07-187. PMID: 18204498.
52. Jamali P, Fotouhi A, Hashemi H, Younesian M, Jafari A. Refractive errors and amblyopia in children entering school: Shahrood, Iran. Optom Vis Sci. 2009 Apr;86(4):364-9. doi: 10.1097/OPX.0b013e3181993f42. PMID: 19289975.
53. Schaal LF, Schellini SA, Pesci LT, Galindo A, Padovani CR, Corrente JE. The Prevalence of Strabismus and Associated Risk Factors in a Southeastern Region of Brazil. Semin Ophthalmol. 2018;33(3):357-360. doi: 10.1080/08820538.2016.1247176. Epub 2016 Dec 14. PMID: 27960584.
54. Aring E, Grönlund MA, Andersson S, Hård AL, Ygge J, Hellström A. Strabismus and binocular functions in a sample of Swedish children aged 4-15 years. Strabismus. 2005 Jun;13(2):55-61. doi: 10.1080/09273970590922664. PMID: 16020358.
55. Monaco A, Spadaro A, Sgolastra F, Petrucci A, D'Andrea PD, Gatto R. Prevalence of hyperopia and strabismus in a paediatric population with malocclusions. Eur J Paediatr Dent. 2011 Dec;12(4):272-4. PMID: 22185255.
56. Silbert AL, Matta NS, Silbert DI. Incidence of strabismus and amblyopia in preverbal children previously diagnosed with pseudoesotropia. Am Orthopt J. 2013;63:103-6. doi: 10.3368/aoj.63.1.103. PMID: 24141760.
57. Robaei D, Kifley A, Mitchell P. Factors associated with a previous diagnosis of strabismus in a population-based sample of 12-year-old Australian children. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006 Dec;142(6):1085-8. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2006.06.053. Epub 2006 Aug 2. PMID: 17157605.
58. Goseki T, Ishikawa H. The prevalence and types of strabismus, and average of stereopsis in Japanese adults. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2017 May;61(3):280-285. doi: 10.1007/s10384-017-0505-1. Epub 2017 Feb 22. PMID: 28229342.
59. Yoon KC, Mun GH, Kim SD, Kim SH, Kim CY, Park KH, Park YJ, Baek SH, Song SJ, Shin JP, Yang SW, Yu SY, Lee JS, Lim KH, Park HJ, Pyo EY, Yang JE, Kim YT, Oh KW, Kang SW. Prevalence of eye diseases in South Korea: data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2008-2009. Korean J Ophthalmol. 2011 Dec;25(6):421-33. doi: 10.3341/kjo.2011.25.6.421. Epub 2011 Nov 22. PMID: 22131780; PMCID: PMC3223710.
60. Leone JF, Cornell E, Morgan IG, Mitchell P, Kifley A, Wang JJ, Rose KA. Prevalence of heterophoria and associations with refractive error, heterotropia and ethnicity in Australian school children. Br J Ophthalmol. 2010 May;94(5):542-6. doi: 10.1136/bjo.2009.163709. Epub 2009 Oct 22. PMID: 19850581.
61. Kvarnström G, Jakobsson P, Lennerstrand G. Visual screening of Swedish children: an ophthalmological evaluation. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2001 Jun;79(3):240-4. doi: 10.1034/j.1600-0420.2001.790306.x. PMID: 11401631.
62. Fieß A, Dautzenberg K, Gißler S, Mildenberger E, Urschitz MS, Elflein HM, Laspas P, Stoffelns BM, Pfeiffer N, Schuster AK. Prevalence of strabismus and risk factors in adults born preterm with and without retinopathy of prematurity: results from the Gutenberg Prematurity Eye study. Br J Ophthalmol. 2024 Oct 22;108(11):1590-1597. doi: 10.1136/bjo-2023-324698. PMID: 38503479; PMCID: PMC11503079.
63. Lee DC, Park J, Park HS, Paik HJ, Lee JY, Oh SY, Lee SJ, Lee SY. Characteristic differences between full-term and premature infants with intermittent exotropia. Sci Rep. 2024 Sep 19;14(1):21879. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-72085-9. PMID: 39300164; PMCID: PMC11413369.
64. Su H, Fu J, Chen W, Meng Z, Li L, Dai W, Yao Y. Prevalence of Heterophoria in Tibetan Grade-One Students: The Lhasa Childhood Eye Study. J Ophthalmol. 2020 Dec 24;2020:9570908. doi: 10.1155/2020/9570908. PMID: 33489351; PMCID: PMC7803105.
65. Sandfeld L, Weihrauch H, Tubaek G, Mortzos P. Ophthalmological data on 4.5- to 7-year-old Danish children. Acta Ophthalmol. 2018 Jun;96(4):379-383. doi: 10.1111/aos.13650. Epub 2018 Jan 25. PMID: 29369530.
66. Hultman O, Beth Høeg T, Munch IC, Ellervik C, la Cour M, Andersson Grönlund M, Buch Hesgaard H. The Danish Rural Eye Study: prevalence of strabismus among 3785 Danish adults - a population-based cross-sectional study. Acta Ophthalmol. 2019 Dec;97(8):784-792. doi: 10.1111/aos.14112. Epub 2019 Apr 26. PMID: 31025814.
67. Hartness EM, Jiang F, Zamba GKD, Allen C, Bragg TL, Nellis J, Dumitrescu AV, Kardon RH. Automated strabismus evaluation: a critical review and meta-analysis. Front Neurol. 2025 Sep 10;16:1620568. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2025.1620568. PMID: 41001207; PMCID: PMC12457155.
68. Matsuo T, Matsuo C, Matsuoka H, Kio K. Detection of strabismus and amblyopia in 1.5- and 3-year-old children by a preschool vision-screening program in Japan. Acta Med Okayama. 2007 Feb;61(1):9-16. doi: 10.18926/AMO/32910. PMID: 17332837.
69. Tanaka A, Ohno-Matsui K, Shimada N, Hayashi K, Shibata Y, Yoshida T, Yamashita M, Tokoro T, Mochizuki M. Prevalence of strabismus in patients with pathologic myopia. J Med Dent Sci. 2010 Mar;57(1):75-82. PMID: 20437768.
70. Khorrami-Nejad M, Akbari MR, Khosravi B. The prevalence of strabismus types in strabismic Iranian patients. Clin Optom (Auckl). 2018 Feb 19;10:19-24. doi: 10.2147/OPTO.S147642. PMID: 30214338; PMCID: PMC6095557.
71. Laughton SC, Hagen MM, Yang W, von Bartheld CS. Gender differences in horizontal strabismus: Systematic review and meta-analysis shows no difference in prevalence, but gender bias towards females in the clinic. J Glob Health. 2023 Sep 1;13:04085. doi: 10.7189/jogh.13.04085. PMID: 37651634; PMCID: PMC10471156.
72. Zhang XJ, Lau YH, Wang YM, Kam KW, Ip P, Yip WW, Ko ST, Young AL, Tham CC, Pang CP, Chen LJ, Yam JC. Prevalence of strabismus and its risk factors among school aged children: The Hong Kong Children Eye Study. Sci Rep. 2021 Jul 5;11(1):13820. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-93131-w. PMID: 34226578; PMCID: PMC8257606.
73. Tang SM, Chan RY, Bin Lin S, Rong SS, Lau HH, Lau WW, Yip WW, Chen LJ, Ko ST, Yam JC. Refractive Errors and Concomitant Strabismus: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Sci Rep. 2016 Oct 12;6:35177. doi: 10.1038/srep35177. PMID: 27731389; PMCID: PMC5059633.
74. Kaur K, Gurnani B. Exotropia. 2023 Jun 11. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 35201713.
75. Yang Y, Wang C, Gan Y, Jiang H, Fu W, Cao S, Lu Z. Maternal smoking during pregnancy and the risk of strabismus in offspring: a meta-analysis. Acta Ophthalmol. 2019 Jun;97(4):353-363. doi: 10.1111/aos.13953. Epub 2018 Nov 6. PMID: 30402966.
76. Cotter SA, Varma R, Tarczy-Hornoch K, McKean-Cowdin R, Lin J, Wen G, Wei J, Borchert M, Azen SP, Torres M, Tielsch JM, Friedman DS, Repka MX, Katz J, Ibironke J, Giordano L; Joint Writing Committee for the Multi-Ethnic Pediatric Eye Disease Study and the Baltimore Pediatric Eye Disease Study Groups. Risk factors associated with childhood strabismus: the multi-ethnic pediatric eye disease and Baltimore pediatric eye disease studies. Ophthalmology. 2011 Nov;118(11):2251-61. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.06.032. Epub 2011 Aug 19. PMID: 21856012; PMCID: PMC3208120.
2. Swanson MW, McGwin G. Visual impairment and functional status from the 1995 National Health Interview Survey on Disability. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2004 Jul;11(3):227-39. doi: 10.1080/09286580490514540. PMID: 15370554.
3. Robaei D, Rose KA, Kifley A, Cosstick M, Ip JM, Mitchell P. Factors associated with childhood strabismus: findings from a population-based study. Ophthalmology. 2006 Jul;113(7):1146-53. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2006.02.019. Epub 2006 May 3. PMID: 16675019.
4. Kanukollu VM, Sood G. Strabismus. 2023 Nov 13. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 32809617.
5. Shirzadi K, Amirdehi AR, Makateb AL, Shahraki K, Khosravifard K. Studying the effect of tropicamide various concentrations on routine dilation of the pupil. Biomedical and Pharmacology Journal. 2015 Dec 28;8(2):885-9. doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.13005/bpj/839 (Link).
6. Azonobi IR, Olatunji FO, Adido J, Osayande OO. Vision of strabismic children in Ilorin, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Ophthalmology. 2008 Nov 12;16(1):12-5. doi: 10.4314/njo.v16i1.11952 (Link)
7. Mason A, Joronen K, Lindberg L, Kajander M, Fagerholm N, Rantanen A. Strabismic Adults' Experiences of Psychosocial Influence of Strabismus-A Qualitative Study. SAGE Open Nurs. 2024 Sep 5;10:23779608241278456. doi: 10.1177/23779608241278456. PMID: 39246297; PMCID: PMC11378177.
8. Buffenn AN. The impact of strabismus on psychosocial health and quality of life: a systematic review. Surv Ophthalmol. 2021 Nov-Dec;66(6):1051-1064. doi: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2021.03.005. Epub 2021 Mar 25. PMID: 33773997.
9. Hashemi H, Yekta A, Jafarzadehpur E, Ostadimoghaddam H, Eshrati B, Mohazzab-Torabi S, Khabazkhoob M, Soroush S. The prevalence of strabismus in 7-year-old schoolchildren in Iran. Strabismus. 2015;23(1):1-7. doi: 10.3109/09273972.2014.999795. Epub 2015 Jan 13. PMID: 25584828.
10. Adejumo OO, Olusanya BA, Ajayi BG. Ocular Disorders among Preschool Children in Southwest Nigeria. Middle East Afr J Ophthalmol. 2021 Apr 30;28(1):23-28. doi: 10.4103/meajo.MEAJO_191_19. PMID: 34321819; PMCID: PMC8270023.
11. Faghihi M, Ostadimoghaddam H, Yekta AA. Amblyopia and strabismus in Iranian schoolchildren, Mashhad. Strabismus. 2011 Dec;19(4):147-52. doi: 10.3109/09273972.2011.622341. PMID: 22107119.
12. Al-Rowaily MA. Prevalence of refractive errors among pre-school children at King Abdulaziz Medical City, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Saudi J Ophthalmol. 2010 Apr;24(2):45-8. doi: 10.1016/j.sjopt.2010.01.001. Epub 2010 Apr 2. PMID: 23960874; PMCID: PMC3729549.
13. Chia A, Dirani M, Chan YH, Gazzard G, Au Eong KG, Selvaraj P, Ling Y, Quah BL, Young TL, Mitchell P, Varma R, Wong TY, Saw SM. Prevalence of amblyopia and strabismus in young singaporean chinese children. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2010 Jul;51(7):3411-7. doi: 10.1167/iovs.09-4461. Epub 2010 Mar 5. PMID: 20207979; PMCID: PMC3979488.
14. Multi-ethnic Pediatric Eye Disease Study Group. Prevalence of amblyopia and strabismus in African American and Hispanic children ages 6 to 72 months the multi-ethnic pediatric eye disease study. Ophthalmology. 2008 Jul;115(7):1229-1236.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2007.08.001. Epub 2007 Oct 22. PMID: 17953989; PMCID: PMC4839485.
15. McKean-Cowdin R, Cotter SA, Tarczy-Hornoch K, Wen G, Kim J, Borchert M, Varma R; Multi-Ethnic Pediatric Eye Disease Study Group. Prevalence of amblyopia or strabismus in asian and non-Hispanic white preschool children: multi-ethnic pediatric eye disease study. Ophthalmology. 2013 Oct;120(10):2117-24. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2013.03.001. Epub 2013 May 19. PMID: 23697956; PMCID: PMC4848013.
16. Arnold RW. Amblyopia risk factor prevalence. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 2013 Jul-Aug;50(4):213-7. doi: 10.3928/01913913-20130326-01. Epub 2013 Apr 2. PMID: 23556991.
17. Han KE, Baek SH, Kim SH, Lim KH; Epidemiologic Survey Committee of the Korean Ophthalmological Society. Prevalence and risk factors of strabismus in children and adolescents in South Korea: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2008-2011. PLoS One. 2018 Feb 14;13(2):e0191857. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0191857. PMID: 29444106; PMCID: PMC5812601.
18. Curtis TH, McClatchey M, Wheeler DT. Epidemiology of surgical strabismus in Saudi Arabia. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2010 Oct;17(5):307-14. doi: 10.3109/09286586.2010.508351. PMID: 20868257.
19. Friedman DS, Repka MX, Katz J, Giordano L, Ibironke J, Hawse P, Tielsch JM. Prevalence of amblyopia and strabismus in white and African American children aged 6 through 71 months the Baltimore Pediatric Eye Disease Study. Ophthalmology. 2009 Nov;116(11):2128-34.e1-2. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2009.04.034. Epub 2009 Sep 16. PMID: 19762084; PMCID: PMC2783780.
20. Garvey KA, Dobson V, Messer DH, Miller JM, Harvey EM. Prevalence of strabismus among preschool, kindergarten, and first-grade Tohono O'odham children. Optometry. 2010 Apr;81(4):194-9. doi: 10.1016/j.optm.2009.10.010. PMID: 20346891; PMCID: PMC2847803.
21. Gursoy H, Basmak H, Yaz Y, Colak E. Vision screening in children entering school: Eskisehir, Turkey. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2013 Aug;20(4):232-8. doi: 10.3109/09286586.2013.808672. PMID: 23865604.
22. Hong JD, Choi EH, Suh S, Bui JH, Storch AM, Walker KR, Shahraki K, Yanez C, Torres D, Espinoza J, Molina I, Suh DW. UCI EyeMobile Exam Findings from School Children Following on-Site Screening. Clin Ophthalmol. 2024 Jun 6;18:1667-1678. doi: 10.2147/OPTH.S460879. PMID: 38860118; PMCID: PMC11164085.
23. Tegegne MM, Fekadu SA, Assem AS. Prevalence of Strabismus and Its Associated Factors Among School-Age Children Living in Bahir Dar City: A Community-Based Cross-Sectional Study. Clin Optom (Auckl). 2021 Apr 8;13:103-112. doi: 10.2147/OPTO.S300124. PMID: 33854396; PMCID: PMC8041646.
24. Wang Y, Zhao A, Zhang X, Huang D, Zhu H, Sun Q, Yu J, Chen J, Zhao X, Li R, Han S, Dong W, Ma F, Chen X, Liu H. Prevalence of strabismus among preschool children in eastern China and comparison at a 5-year interval: a population-based cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2021 Oct 19;11(10):e055112. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2021-055112. PMID: 34667017; PMCID: PMC8527110.
25. Greenberg AE, Mohney BG, Diehl NN, Burke JP. Incidence and types of childhood esotropia: a population-based study. Ophthalmology. 2007 Jan;114(1):170-4. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2006.05.072. Epub 2006 Oct 27. PMID: 17070595.
26. Hashemi H, Nabovati P, Yekta A, Ostadimoghaddam H, Behnia B, Khabazkhoob M. The Prevalence of Strabismus, Heterophorias, and Their Associated Factors in Underserved Rural Areas of Iran. Strabismus. 2017 Jun;25(2):60-66. doi: 10.1080/09273972.2017.1317820. Epub 2017 May 2. PMID: 28463575.
27. Yekta A, Fotouhi A, Hashemi H, Dehghani C, Ostadimoghaddam H, Heravian J, Derakhshan A, Yekta R, Rezvan F, Behnia M, Khabazkhoob M. The prevalence of anisometropia, amblyopia and strabismus in schoolchildren of Shiraz, Iran. Strabismus. 2010 Sep;18(3):104-10. doi: 10.3109/09273972.2010.502957. PMID: 20843187.
28. Yekta A, Hashemi H, Norouzirad R, Ostadimoghaddam H, Nabovati P, Dadbin N, Nirouzad F, Shir-Alivand E, Khabazkhoob M. The Prevalence of Amblyopia, Strabismus, and Ptosis in Schoolchildren of Dezful. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2017 Jan/Feb;27(1):109-112. doi: 10.5301/ejo.5000795. PMID: 27228971.
29. Yekta A, Hashemi H, Ostadimoghaddam H, Haghighi B, Shafiee H, Mehravaran S, Nabovati P, Asharlous A, Khabazkhoob M. Strabismus and Near Point of Convergence and Amblyopia in 4-6 Year-Old Children. Strabismus. 2016 Sep;24(3):113-9. doi: 10.1080/09273972.2016.1205103. Epub 2016 Aug 2. PMID: 27485705.
30. Wu J, Wang N. Prevalence and characteristics of amblyopia, strabismus, and refractive errors among patients aged 3-16 years in Shanghai, China: a hospital-based population study. BMC Ophthalmol. 2024 Jun 7;24(1):239. doi: 10.1186/s12886-024-03477-8. PMID: 38849757; PMCID: PMC11157824.
31. Agaje BG, Delelegne D, Abera E, Desta K, Girum M, Mossie M, Eshetu D, Hirigo AT. Strabismus prevalence and associated factors among pediatric patients in southern Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study. J Int Med Res. 2020 Oct;48(10):300060520964339. doi: 10.1177/0300060520964339. PMID: 33076734; PMCID: PMC7583393.
32. Miyata M, Kido A, Miyake M, Tamura H, Kamei T, Wada S, Ueshima H, Kawai K, Nakao S, Yamamoto A, Suda K, Nakano E, Tagawa M, Tsujikawa A. Prevalence and Incidence of Strabismus by Age Group in Japan: A Nationwide Population-Based Cohort Study. Am J Ophthalmol. 2024 Jun;262:222-228. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2023.11.022. Epub 2023 Nov 30. PMID: 38040322.
33. Donnelly UM, Stewart NM, Hollinger M. Prevalence and outcomes of childhood visual disorders. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2005 Aug;12(4):243-50. doi: 10.1080/09286580590967772. PMID: 16033745.
34. Chia A, Roy L, Seenyen L. Comitant horizontal strabismus: an Asian perspective. Br J Ophthalmol. 2007 Oct;91(10):1337-40. doi: 10.1136/bjo.2007.116905. Epub 2007 May 2. PMID: 17475715; PMCID: PMC2000992.
35. Pai A, Mitchell P. Prevalence of amblyopia and strabismus. Ophthalmology. 2010 Oct;117(10):2043-4; author reply 2044. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2010.06.028. PMID: 20888491.
36. Matsuo T, Matsuo C. The prevalence of strabismus and amblyopia in Japanese elementary school children. Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2005 Feb;12(1):31-6. doi: 10.1080/09286580490907805. PMID: 15848918.
37. Qanat AS, Alsuheili A, Alzahrani AM, Faydhi AA, Albadri A, Alhibshi N. Assessment of Different Types of Strabismus Among Pediatric Patients in a Tertiary Hospital in Jeddah. Cureus. 2020 Dec 8;12(12):e11978. doi: 10.7759/cureus.11978. PMID: 33425550; PMCID: PMC7790318.
38. Pan CW, Chen X, Zhu H, Fu Z, Zhong H, Li J, Huang D, Liu H. School-based assessment of amblyopia and strabismus among multiethnic children in rural China. Sci Rep. 2017 Oct 17;7(1):13410. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-13926-8. PMID: 29042639; PMCID: PMC5645399.
39. Alipour F, Hashemi H, Lashay A, Jafari F, Motamed-Gorji N, Jabbarvand Behrouz M, Mirzaei M, Alizade Y, Soleymani MR, Shoja MR, Shahraki K, Khataminia GR, Poustchi H, Malekzadeh R. PERSIAN Eye Cohort Study (PECS): Design, Methodology. Arch Iran Med. 2023 Aug 1;26(8):459-469. doi: 10.34172/aim.2023.70. PMID: 38301109; PMCID: PMC10685732.
40. Tipton E. Stratified sampling using cluster analysis: a sample selection strategy for improved generalizations from experiments. Eval Rev. 2013 Apr;37(2):109-39. doi: 10.1177/0193841X13516324. Epub 2014 Mar 18. PMID: 24647924.
41. Hennig C, Liao TF. How to find an appropriate clustering for mixed-type variables with application to socio-economic stratification. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series C: Applied Statistics. 2013 May;62(3):309-69. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9876.2012.01066.x (Link)
42. Alipour F, Mohammadzadeh M, Jafari F, Lashay A, Yaseri M, Motamed-Gorji N, Alizadeh Y, Soleimani M, Mirzaei M, Shahraki K, Salimpour S, Shoja MR, Khataminia G, Tahkor A, Tavakoli R, Somi MH, Mansour-Ghanaei F, Joukar F, Ansari-Moghaddam A, Saki N, Hashemi H. Distribution and prevalence of refractive error in Iranian adult population results of the PERSIAN eye cohort study PECS. Sci Rep. 2024 Jun 24;14(1):14515. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-65328-2. PMID: 38914645; PMCID: PMC11196648.
43. Kawasaki AK. Diagnostic approach to pupillary abnormalities. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2014 Aug;20(4 Neuro-ophthalmology):1008-22. doi: 10.1212/01.CON.0000453306.42981.94. PMID: 25099106; PMCID: PMC10563972.
44. Glazer-Hockstein C, Brucker AJ. The detection of a relative afferent pupillary defect. Am J Ophthalmol. 2002 Jul;134(1):142-3. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9394(02)01503-9. PMID: 12095831.
45. Mestre C, Otero C, Díaz-Doutón F, Gautier J, Pujol J. An automated and objective cover test to measure heterophoria. PLoS One. 2018 Nov 1;13(11):e0206674. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0206674. PMID: 30383846; PMCID: PMC6211723.
46. Sprunger DT, Lambert SR, Hercinovic A, Morse CL, Repka MX, Hutchinson AK, Cruz OA, Wallace DK; American Academy of Ophthalmology Preferred Practice Pattern Pediatric Ophthalmology/Strabismus Panel. Esotropia and Exotropia Preferred Practice Pattern®. Ophthalmology. 2023 Mar;130(3):P179-P221. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2022.11.002. Epub 2022 Dec 14. PMID: 36526451; PMCID: PMC10655158.
47. Hashemi H, Pakzad R, Nabovati P, Azad Shahraki F, Ostadimoghaddam H, Aghamirsalim M, Pakbin M, Yekta A, Khoshhal F, Khabazkhoob M. The prevalence of tropia, phoria and their types in a student population in Iran. Strabismus. 2020 Mar;28(1):35-41. doi: 10.1080/09273972.2019.1697300. Epub 2019 Dec 23. PMID: 31868064.
48. Hegde SA, B S J, V H K. Prevalence of strabismus among school going children in India. Bioinformation. 2025 Mar 31;21(3):410-413. doi: 10.6026/973206300210410. PMID: 40599943; PMCID: PMC12208243.
49. Derakhshan A, Sabermoghaddam A, Abdolahian M, Ganavati SZ, Shakeri MT, Zareei A, Bamdad S. The Strabismus Prevalence in a Random Sample of Iran's Northeastern Population. Pakistan Journal of Ophthalmology. 2024;40(1). doi: 10.36351/pjo.v40i1.1688 (Link)
50. Williams C, Northstone K, Howard M, Harvey I, Harrad RA, Sparrow JM. Prevalence and risk factors for common vision problems in children: data from the ALSPAC study. Br J Ophthalmol. 2008 Jul;92(7):959-64. doi: 10.1136/bjo.2007.134700. Epub 2008 May 14. PMID: 18480306.
51. Drover JR, Kean PG, Courage ML, Adams RJ. Prevalence of amblyopia and other vision disorders in young Newfoundland and Labrador children. Can J Ophthalmol. 2008 Feb;43(1):89-94. doi: 10.3129/i07-187. PMID: 18204498.
52. Jamali P, Fotouhi A, Hashemi H, Younesian M, Jafari A. Refractive errors and amblyopia in children entering school: Shahrood, Iran. Optom Vis Sci. 2009 Apr;86(4):364-9. doi: 10.1097/OPX.0b013e3181993f42. PMID: 19289975.
53. Schaal LF, Schellini SA, Pesci LT, Galindo A, Padovani CR, Corrente JE. The Prevalence of Strabismus and Associated Risk Factors in a Southeastern Region of Brazil. Semin Ophthalmol. 2018;33(3):357-360. doi: 10.1080/08820538.2016.1247176. Epub 2016 Dec 14. PMID: 27960584.
54. Aring E, Grönlund MA, Andersson S, Hård AL, Ygge J, Hellström A. Strabismus and binocular functions in a sample of Swedish children aged 4-15 years. Strabismus. 2005 Jun;13(2):55-61. doi: 10.1080/09273970590922664. PMID: 16020358.
55. Monaco A, Spadaro A, Sgolastra F, Petrucci A, D'Andrea PD, Gatto R. Prevalence of hyperopia and strabismus in a paediatric population with malocclusions. Eur J Paediatr Dent. 2011 Dec;12(4):272-4. PMID: 22185255.
56. Silbert AL, Matta NS, Silbert DI. Incidence of strabismus and amblyopia in preverbal children previously diagnosed with pseudoesotropia. Am Orthopt J. 2013;63:103-6. doi: 10.3368/aoj.63.1.103. PMID: 24141760.
57. Robaei D, Kifley A, Mitchell P. Factors associated with a previous diagnosis of strabismus in a population-based sample of 12-year-old Australian children. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006 Dec;142(6):1085-8. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2006.06.053. Epub 2006 Aug 2. PMID: 17157605.
58. Goseki T, Ishikawa H. The prevalence and types of strabismus, and average of stereopsis in Japanese adults. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2017 May;61(3):280-285. doi: 10.1007/s10384-017-0505-1. Epub 2017 Feb 22. PMID: 28229342.
59. Yoon KC, Mun GH, Kim SD, Kim SH, Kim CY, Park KH, Park YJ, Baek SH, Song SJ, Shin JP, Yang SW, Yu SY, Lee JS, Lim KH, Park HJ, Pyo EY, Yang JE, Kim YT, Oh KW, Kang SW. Prevalence of eye diseases in South Korea: data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2008-2009. Korean J Ophthalmol. 2011 Dec;25(6):421-33. doi: 10.3341/kjo.2011.25.6.421. Epub 2011 Nov 22. PMID: 22131780; PMCID: PMC3223710.
60. Leone JF, Cornell E, Morgan IG, Mitchell P, Kifley A, Wang JJ, Rose KA. Prevalence of heterophoria and associations with refractive error, heterotropia and ethnicity in Australian school children. Br J Ophthalmol. 2010 May;94(5):542-6. doi: 10.1136/bjo.2009.163709. Epub 2009 Oct 22. PMID: 19850581.
61. Kvarnström G, Jakobsson P, Lennerstrand G. Visual screening of Swedish children: an ophthalmological evaluation. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2001 Jun;79(3):240-4. doi: 10.1034/j.1600-0420.2001.790306.x. PMID: 11401631.
62. Fieß A, Dautzenberg K, Gißler S, Mildenberger E, Urschitz MS, Elflein HM, Laspas P, Stoffelns BM, Pfeiffer N, Schuster AK. Prevalence of strabismus and risk factors in adults born preterm with and without retinopathy of prematurity: results from the Gutenberg Prematurity Eye study. Br J Ophthalmol. 2024 Oct 22;108(11):1590-1597. doi: 10.1136/bjo-2023-324698. PMID: 38503479; PMCID: PMC11503079.
63. Lee DC, Park J, Park HS, Paik HJ, Lee JY, Oh SY, Lee SJ, Lee SY. Characteristic differences between full-term and premature infants with intermittent exotropia. Sci Rep. 2024 Sep 19;14(1):21879. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-72085-9. PMID: 39300164; PMCID: PMC11413369.
64. Su H, Fu J, Chen W, Meng Z, Li L, Dai W, Yao Y. Prevalence of Heterophoria in Tibetan Grade-One Students: The Lhasa Childhood Eye Study. J Ophthalmol. 2020 Dec 24;2020:9570908. doi: 10.1155/2020/9570908. PMID: 33489351; PMCID: PMC7803105.
65. Sandfeld L, Weihrauch H, Tubaek G, Mortzos P. Ophthalmological data on 4.5- to 7-year-old Danish children. Acta Ophthalmol. 2018 Jun;96(4):379-383. doi: 10.1111/aos.13650. Epub 2018 Jan 25. PMID: 29369530.
66. Hultman O, Beth Høeg T, Munch IC, Ellervik C, la Cour M, Andersson Grönlund M, Buch Hesgaard H. The Danish Rural Eye Study: prevalence of strabismus among 3785 Danish adults - a population-based cross-sectional study. Acta Ophthalmol. 2019 Dec;97(8):784-792. doi: 10.1111/aos.14112. Epub 2019 Apr 26. PMID: 31025814.
67. Hartness EM, Jiang F, Zamba GKD, Allen C, Bragg TL, Nellis J, Dumitrescu AV, Kardon RH. Automated strabismus evaluation: a critical review and meta-analysis. Front Neurol. 2025 Sep 10;16:1620568. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2025.1620568. PMID: 41001207; PMCID: PMC12457155.
68. Matsuo T, Matsuo C, Matsuoka H, Kio K. Detection of strabismus and amblyopia in 1.5- and 3-year-old children by a preschool vision-screening program in Japan. Acta Med Okayama. 2007 Feb;61(1):9-16. doi: 10.18926/AMO/32910. PMID: 17332837.
69. Tanaka A, Ohno-Matsui K, Shimada N, Hayashi K, Shibata Y, Yoshida T, Yamashita M, Tokoro T, Mochizuki M. Prevalence of strabismus in patients with pathologic myopia. J Med Dent Sci. 2010 Mar;57(1):75-82. PMID: 20437768.
70. Khorrami-Nejad M, Akbari MR, Khosravi B. The prevalence of strabismus types in strabismic Iranian patients. Clin Optom (Auckl). 2018 Feb 19;10:19-24. doi: 10.2147/OPTO.S147642. PMID: 30214338; PMCID: PMC6095557.
71. Laughton SC, Hagen MM, Yang W, von Bartheld CS. Gender differences in horizontal strabismus: Systematic review and meta-analysis shows no difference in prevalence, but gender bias towards females in the clinic. J Glob Health. 2023 Sep 1;13:04085. doi: 10.7189/jogh.13.04085. PMID: 37651634; PMCID: PMC10471156.
72. Zhang XJ, Lau YH, Wang YM, Kam KW, Ip P, Yip WW, Ko ST, Young AL, Tham CC, Pang CP, Chen LJ, Yam JC. Prevalence of strabismus and its risk factors among school aged children: The Hong Kong Children Eye Study. Sci Rep. 2021 Jul 5;11(1):13820. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-93131-w. PMID: 34226578; PMCID: PMC8257606.
73. Tang SM, Chan RY, Bin Lin S, Rong SS, Lau HH, Lau WW, Yip WW, Chen LJ, Ko ST, Yam JC. Refractive Errors and Concomitant Strabismus: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Sci Rep. 2016 Oct 12;6:35177. doi: 10.1038/srep35177. PMID: 27731389; PMCID: PMC5059633.
74. Kaur K, Gurnani B. Exotropia. 2023 Jun 11. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 35201713.
75. Yang Y, Wang C, Gan Y, Jiang H, Fu W, Cao S, Lu Z. Maternal smoking during pregnancy and the risk of strabismus in offspring: a meta-analysis. Acta Ophthalmol. 2019 Jun;97(4):353-363. doi: 10.1111/aos.13953. Epub 2018 Nov 6. PMID: 30402966.
76. Cotter SA, Varma R, Tarczy-Hornoch K, McKean-Cowdin R, Lin J, Wen G, Wei J, Borchert M, Azen SP, Torres M, Tielsch JM, Friedman DS, Repka MX, Katz J, Ibironke J, Giordano L; Joint Writing Committee for the Multi-Ethnic Pediatric Eye Disease Study and the Baltimore Pediatric Eye Disease Study Groups. Risk factors associated with childhood strabismus: the multi-ethnic pediatric eye disease and Baltimore pediatric eye disease studies. Ophthalmology. 2011 Nov;118(11):2251-61. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.06.032. Epub 2011 Aug 19. PMID: 21856012; PMCID: PMC3208120.
- Abstract Viewed: 0 times
- Full Text PDF Downloaded: 0 times