Pregnancy-related retinal disorders: clinical features, systemic associations, and management insights
Medical hypothesis, discovery & innovation in optometry,
Vol. 6 No. 3 (2025),
21 November 2025
,
Page 129-143
https://doi.org/10.51329/mehdioptometry232
Abstract
Background: Pregnancy induces profound hormonal, hemodynamic, and metabolic changes that can trigger or exacerbate retinal disorders, some of which may signal systemic complications. This narrative review summarizes current knowledge on retinal diseases specifically induced or worsened during pregnancy.Methods: A comprehensive literature search was conducted in PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science, and Google Scholar up to 31 September 2025, supplemented by manual screening of reference lists of included records. Search terms included “pregnancy”, “preeclampsia”, “eclampsia”, “HELLP syndrome”, “hemolysis, elevated liver enzyme levels, and low platelets syndrome”, “retinal disease”, “retinopathy”, “hypertensive retinopathy”, “serous retinal detachment”, “central serous chorioretinopathy”, “diabetic retinopathy”, “Valsalva retinopathy”, “retinal vein occlusion”, “retinal artery occlusion”, “idiopathic intracranial hypertension”, and “artificial intelligence”. Eligible articles included case reports, case series, observational studies, reviews, and meta-analyses describing retinal conditions specifically induced or worsened during pregnancy. Data were synthesized narratively.
Results: Pregnancy can precipitate sight-threatening retinal pathology or accelerate pre-existing disease. Hypertensive retinopathy associated with preeclampsia and eclampsia is among the most clinically significant conditions, presenting with arteriolar narrowing, retinal hemorrhages, cotton-wool spots, and, in severe cases, serous retinal detachment. Metabolic adaptations, particularly in women with pregestational diabetes, may accelerate the progression of diabetic retinopathy, with some patients advancing from nonproliferative to proliferative stages over short intervals. Pregnancy has also been implicated in serous retinal detachment, central serous chorioretinopathy, Valsalva retinopathy, retinal vascular occlusions, and, less commonly, papilledema secondary to idiopathic intracranial hypertension. These disorders range from transient, self-limited entities to sight-threatening events and often reflect systemic pathology, including preeclampsia, eclampsia, or hypercoagulable states. Optical coherence tomography, optical coherence tomography angiography, and fundus photography provide safe, noninvasive diagnostic and monitoring modalities. Artificial intelligence (AI)-based retinal imaging offers accurate, noninvasive assessment of diabetic and hypertensive retinopathy and demonstrates expert-level performance across clinical settings. Management emphasizes stabilization of maternal systemic disease, optimization of glycemic and blood pressure control, and multidisciplinary care. Most conditions improve postpartum, but prompt recognition is essential to prevent permanent visual loss.
Conclusions: Pregnancy can precipitate or exacerbate a range of retinal disorders, reflecting the complex vascular, hormonal, and metabolic changes of gestation. Noninvasive imaging, interdisciplinary collaboration, and vigilant monitoring are essential to optimizing maternal and fetal outcomes. Awareness and early detection of pregnancy-associated retinal disorders, together with emerging AI-based tools, may further improve outcomes. Longitudinal studies are needed to establish evidence-based screening and management protocols.
Keywords:
- pregnancies
- gestation
- preeclampsia
- eclampsias
- hellp syndrome
- retina
- hypertensive retinopathies
- diabetic retinopathies
- central serous chorioretinopathies
- retinal vein occlusions
- retinal artery occlusions
- idiopathic intracranial hypertension
- computer vision system
- machine intelligence
References
1. Soma-Pillay P, Nelson-Piercy C, Tolppanen H, Mebazaa A. Physiological changes in pregnancy. Cardiovasc J Afr. 2016 Mar-Apr;27(2):89-94. doi: 10.5830/CVJA-2016-021. PMID: 27213856; PMCID: PMC4928162.
2. Kepley JM, Bates K, Mohiuddin SS. Physiology, Maternal Changes. 2023 Mar 12. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 30969588.
3. Rashidian P, Karami S, Salehi SA. A review on retinopathy of prematurity. Med Hypothesis Discov Innov Ophthalmol. 2025 Feb 1;13(4):201-212. doi: 10.51329/mehdiophthal1511. PMID: 40065804; PMCID: PMC11890260.
4. Zhang P, Wang C, Liang Y, Shang Q. Retinal and choroidal microvascular features during pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 2024 Aug 17;14(8):e087319. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2024-087319. PMID: 39153771; PMCID: PMC11331858.
5. Naderan M. Ocular changes during pregnancy. J Curr Ophthalmol. 2018 Jan 3;30(3):202-210. doi: 10.1016/j.joco.2017.11.012. PMID: 30197948; PMCID: PMC6127369.
6. Stern EM, Blace N. Ocular Manifestations of Preeclampsia. 2024 Sep 10. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 35015414.
7. Rosu LM, Prodan-B?rbulescu C, Maghiari AL, Bernad ES, Bernad RL, Iacob R, Stoicescu ER, Borozan F, Ghenciu LA. Current Trends in Diagnosis and Treatment Approach of Diabetic Retinopathy during Pregnancy: A Narrative Review. Diagnostics (Basel). 2024 Feb 8;14(4):369. doi: 10.3390/diagnostics14040369. PMID: 38396408; PMCID: PMC10887682.
8. Anton N, Doroftei B, Ilie OD, Ciuntu RE, Bogd?nici CM, Nechita-Dumitriu I. A Narrative Review of the Complex Relationship between Pregnancy and Eye Changes. Diagnostics (Basel). 2021 Jul 23;11(8):1329. doi: 10.3390/diagnostics11081329. PMID: 34441264; PMCID: PMC8394444.
9. Srejovic JV, Muric MD, Jakovljevic VL, Srejovic IM, Sreckovic SB, Petrovic NT, Todorovic DZ, Bolevich SB, Sarenac Vulovic TS. Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms Involved in the Pathophysiology of Retinal Vascular Disease-Interplay Between Inflammation and Oxidative Stress. Int J Mol Sci. 2024 Nov 4;25(21):11850. doi: 10.3390/ijms252111850. PMID: 39519401; PMCID: PMC11546760.
10. Rosenthal JM, Johnson MW. Management of Retinal Diseases in Pregnant Patients. J Ophthalmic Vis Res. 2018 Jan-Mar;13(1):62-65. doi: 10.4103/jovr.jovr_195_17. PMID: 29403592; PMCID: PMC5782459.
11. Lee H, Yang SW, Kim Y, Shin H, Seo YS, Oh MJ, Choi S, Cho GJ, Hwang HS. Risk of retinopathy in women with pregnancy-induced hypertension: a nationwide population-based cohort study of 9-year follow-up after delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol MFM. 2023 Jul;5(7):100985. doi: 10.1016/j.ajogmf.2023.100985. Epub 2023 Apr 27. PMID: 37119970.
12. Warad C, Midha B, Pandey U, Sivakrishna P, Jain A, Bagadia B, Makhija V, Pravin Patil B, Cheguri S, B K B. Ocular Manifestations in Pregnancy-Induced Hypertension at a Tertiary Level Hospital in Karnataka, India. Cureus. 2023 Feb 12;15(2):e34887. doi: 10.7759/cureus.34887. PMID: 36925976; PMCID: PMC10011940.
13. Uma MS, Bhuvana S, Annamalai R, Muthayya M. Visual morbidity and spectrum of ophthalmic changes in pregnancy induced hypertension. J Family Med Prim Care. 2022 Jun;11(6):2488-2492. doi: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_1716_21. Epub 2022 Jun 30. PMID: 36119202; PMCID: PMC9480772.
14. Zamaladi I, Ruvuma S, Mceniery CM, Kwaga T, Wilkinson IB, Atwine D, Lugobe HM. Retinopathy among women with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy attending hospitals in Mbarara city, south-western Uganda: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2023 Oct 10;13(10):e076365. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2023-076365. PMID: 37816570; PMCID: PMC10565131.
15. Tripathy K, Modi P, Arsiwalla T. Hypertensive Retinopathy. 2025 Jul 6. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 30252236.
16. Reddy SC, Nalliah S, George SRA, Who TS. Fundus changes in pregnancy induced hypertension. Int J Ophthalmol. 2012 Dec 18;5(6):694–7. doi: 10.3980/j.issn.2222-3959.2012.06.08. PMCID: PMC3530810.
17. Di Marco E, Aiello F, Lombardo M, Di Marino M, Missiroli F, Mancino R, Ricci F, Nucci C, Noce A, Di Daniele N, Cesareo M. A literature review of hypertensive retinopathy: systemic correlations and new technologies. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2022 Sep;26(18):6424-6443. doi: 10.26355/eurrev_202209_29742. PMID: 36196693.
18. Chandran JR, Narayanan IB, Rajan J. Ocular Manifestations: Are They Significant in Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy? J Obstet Gynaecol India. 2021 Apr;71(2):118-123. doi: 10.1007/s13224-020-01385-7. Epub 2020 Nov 17. PMID: 34149212; PMCID: PMC8167031.
19. Chua J, Tan B, Wong D, Garhöfer G, Liew XW, Popa-Cherecheanu A, Loong Chin CW, Milea D, Li-Hsian Chen C, Schmetterer L. Optical coherence tomography angiography of the retina and choroid in systemic diseases. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2024 Nov;103:101292. doi: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2024.101292. Epub 2024 Aug 30. PMID: 39218142.
20. Kaliaperumal S, Setia S, Gupta A, Rao VA. Fetal birthweight and diastolic blood pressure: association with retinopathy in severe preeclampsia. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2008 Sep-Oct;18(5):809-12. doi: 10.1177/112067210801800524. PMID: 18850563.
21. He X, Ji Y, Yu M, Tong Y. Chorioretinal Alterations Induced by Preeclampsia. J Ophthalmol. 2021 Mar 10;2021:8847001. doi: 10.1155/2021/8847001. PMID: 33777446; PMCID: PMC7969093.
22. Tsukikawa M, Stacey AW. A Review of Hypertensive Retinopathy and Chorioretinopathy. Clin Optom (Auckl). 2020 May 5;12:67-73. doi: 10.2147/OPTO.S183492. PMID: 32440245; PMCID: PMC7211319.
23. Bourke K, Patel MR, Prisant LM, Marcus DM. Hypertensive choroidopathy. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 2004 Aug;6(8):471-2. doi: 10.1111/j.1524-6175.2004.3749.x. PMID: 15308890; PMCID: PMC8109303.
24. Christou EE, Ong AY, Frise C, Jalil A, Ivanova T, Georgalas I, de Silva SR. Evaluating the Chorioretinal Microcirculation in Preeclampsia with OCT-Angiography: A Narrative Literature Review. J Clin Med. 2025 Jun 2;14(11):3913. doi: 10.3390/jcm14113913. PMID: 40507675; PMCID: PMC12156824.
25. Fischer M, Schmutzhard E. Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome. J Neurol. 2017 Aug;264(8):1608-1616. doi: 10.1007/s00415-016-8377-8. Epub 2017 Jan 4. PMID: 28054130; PMCID: PMC5533845.
26. Roos NM, Wiegman MJ, Jansonius NM, Zeeman GG. Visual disturbances in (pre)eclampsia. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2012 Apr;67(4):242-50. doi: 10.1097/OGX.0b013e318250a457. PMID: 22495060.
27. Qin Q, Chen C, Cugati S. Ophthalmic associations in pregnancy. Aust J Gen Pract. 2020 Oct;49(10):673-680. doi: 10.31128/AJGP-10-19-5113. PMID: 33015686.
28. Rashidian P, Safari R, Salehi SA, Karami S. Retinal changes in preeclampsia. Medical hypothesis, discovery & innovation in optometry. 2024 Sep 1;5(2):76-84. doi: 10.51329/mehdioptometry201 (Link).
29. Hao S, Hao W, Ma Y. The features of serous retinal detachment in preeclampsia viewed on spectral-domain optical coherence tomography. Pregnancy Hypertens. 2024 Jun;36:101117. doi: 10.1016/j.preghy.2024.101117. Epub 2024 Feb 29. PMID: 38428345.
30. van Dijk EHC, Boon CJF. Serous business: Delineating the broad spectrum of diseases with subretinal fluid in the macula. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2021 Sep;84:100955. doi: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2021.100955. Epub 2021 Mar 11. PMID: 33716160.
31. Zebbache MH. Bilateral Exudative Retinal Detachment Complicating Preeclampsia With Partial Hemolysis, Elevated Liver Enzymes, and Low Platelet Count Syndrome. Cureus. 2021 Sep 8;13(9):e17825. doi: 10.7759/cureus.17825. PMID: 34660035; PMCID: PMC8500246.s
32. Phang DSK, Ariffin N, Abd Aziz H, Vendargon FM, Sonny Teo KS. Bilateral Serous Retinal Detachment in Pregnancy. Cureus. 2022 Oct 7;14(10):e30019. doi: 10.7759/cureus.30019. PMID: 36348857; PMCID: PMC9637277.
33. Abu Samra K. The eye and visual system in the preeclampsia/eclampsia syndrome: What to expect? Saudi J Ophthalmol. 2013 Jan;27(1):51-3. doi: 10.1016/j.sjopt.2012.04.003. Epub 2012 Apr 23. PMID: 23964188; PMCID: PMC3729391.
34. Nicholson B, Noble J, Forooghian F, Meyerle C. Central serous chorioretinopathy: update on pathophysiology and treatment. Surv Ophthalmol. 2013 Mar-Apr;58(2):103-26. doi: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2012.07.004. PMID: 23410821; PMCID: PMC3574296.
35. Semeraro F, Morescalchi F, Russo A, Gambicorti E, Pilotto A, Parmeggiani F, Bartollino S, Costagliola C. Central Serous Chorioretinopathy: Pathogenesis and Management. Clin Ophthalmol. 2019 Dec 2;13:2341-2352. doi: 10.2147/OPTH.S220845. PMID: 31819359; PMCID: PMC6897067.
36. Pole C, Gaw Stephanie SL, Tsui Irena I. Utility of optical coherence tomography angiography in pregnancy-associated central serous chorioretinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol Case Rep. 2020 Oct 22;20:100979. doi: 10.1016/j.ajoc.2020.100979. PMID: 33145456; PMCID: PMC7595881.
37. Yu J, Li L, Jiang C, Chang Q, Xu G. Clinical Characteristics of Pregnancy-Associated Central Serous Chorioretinopathy in the Chinese Population. J Ophthalmol. 2021 Dec 16;2021:5580075. doi: 10.1155/2021/5580075. PMID: 34956667; PMCID: PMC8702364.
38. Wang M, Munch IC, Hasler PW, Prünte C, Larsen M. Central serous chorioretinopathy. Acta Ophthalmol. 2008 Mar;86(2):126-45. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0420.2007.00889.x. Epub 2007 Jul 28. PMID: 17662099.
39. Narayanan S, Anantharaman G, Gopalakrishnan M, Anthony E. Spectral domain optical coherence tomography-guided laser treatment of central serous chorioretinopathy in a pregnant woman. Retin Cases Brief Rep. 2015 Winter;9(1):55-8. doi: 10.1097/ICB.0000000000000080. PMID: 25383837.
40. Haimovici R, Koh S, Gagnon DR, Lehrfeld T, Wellik S; Central Serous Chorioretinopathy Case-Control Study Group. Risk factors for central serous chorioretinopathy: a case-control study. Ophthalmology. 2004 Feb;111(2):244-9. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2003.09.024. PMID: 15019370.
41. Chandrasekaran PR, Madanagopalan VG, Narayanan R. Diabetic retinopathy in pregnancy - A review. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2021 Nov;69(11):3015-3025. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_1377_21. PMID: 34708737; PMCID: PMC8725079.
42. Rashidian P. Pregnancy and diabetic retinopathy. Medical hypothesis, discovery & innovation in optometry. 2024 Apr 30;5(1):35-42. doi: 10.51329/mehdioptometry195 (Link).
43. Mir TA, Finn AP. Pregnancy and diabetic retinopathy—considerations for evaluation and treatment: a review. Annals of Eye Science. 2023 Sep 30;8:14-. doi: 10.21037/aes-22-82 (Link).
44. Widyaputri F, Rogers SL, Kandasamy R, Shub A, Symons RCA, Lim LL. Global Estimates of Diabetic Retinopathy Prevalence and Progression in Pregnant Women With Preexisting Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2022 May 1;140(5):486-494. doi: 10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2022.0050. PMID: 35357410; PMCID: PMC8972153.
45. Lee SC, Siebert E, Raja V, Mehrotra C, Richards J, Khan J, Graham DF. Determinants of progression of diabetic retinopathy in pregnancy. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2024 Aug;214:111784. doi: 10.1016/j.diabres.2024.111784. Epub 2024 Jul 14. PMID: 39004310.
46. Rathinavelu J, Sarvepalli SM, Bailey B, D'Alessio D, Hadziahmetovic M. The Impact of Pregnancy on Diabetic Retinopathy: A Single-Site Study of Clinical Risk Factors. Ophthalmic Res. 2023;66(1):1169-1180. doi: 10.1159/000533416. Epub 2023 Aug 11. PMID: 37573783; PMCID: PMC10614555.
47. Errera MH, Kohly RP, da Cruz L. Pregnancy-associated retinal diseases and their management. Surv Ophthalmol. 2013 Mar-Apr;58(2):127-42. doi: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2012.08.001. PMID: 23410822.
48. Huang J, Liang C, Huang J, Liu L. Update on diabetic retinopathy during pregnancy. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2024 Nov;34(6):1695-1706. doi: 10.1177/11206721241248868. Epub 2024 May 6. PMID: 38710196.
49. Gale MJ, Scruggs BA, Flaxel CJ. Diabetic eye disease: A review of screening and management recommendations. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2021 Mar;49(2):128-145. doi: 10.1111/ceo.13894. Epub 2021 Jan 10. PMID: 33438363.
50. Choo PP, Md Din N, Azmi N, Bastion MC. Review of the management of sight-threatening diabetic retinopathy during pregnancy. World J Diabetes. 2021 Sep 15;12(9):1386-1400. doi: 10.4239/wjd.v12.i9.1386. PMID: 34630896; PMCID: PMC8472492.
51. Zhang J, Zhang J, Zhang C, Zhang J, Gu L, Luo D, Qiu Q. Diabetic Macular Edema: Current Understanding, Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Implications. Cells. 2022 Oct 25;11(21):3362. doi: 10.3390/cells11213362. PMID: 36359761; PMCID: PMC9655436.
52. Madike R, Cugati S, Qin Q, Chen C. Pregnancy and the eye: What do we need to watch out for? A review. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2024 Mar;52(2):234-247. doi: 10.1111/ceo.14346. Epub 2024 Jan 12. PMID: 38214050.
53. Le HG, Shakoor A. Diabetic and Retinal Vascular Eye Disease. Med Clin North Am. 2021 May;105(3):455-472. doi: 10.1016/j.mcna.2021.02.004. Epub 2021 Apr 2. PMID: 33926641.
54. Shukla UV, Tripathy K. Diabetic Retinopathy. 2023 Aug 25. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 32809640.
55. Relph S, Patel T, Delaney L, Sobhy S, Thangaratinam S. Adverse pregnancy outcomes in women with diabetes-related microvascular disease and risks of disease progression in pregnancy: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med. 2021 Nov 22;18(11):e1003856. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1003856. PMID: 34807920; PMCID: PMC8654151.
56. Karti O, Ipek SC, Saatci AO. Multimodal Imaging Characteristics of a Large Retinal Capillary Macroaneurysm in an Eye With Severe Diabetic Macular Edema: A Case Presentation and Literature Review. Med Hypothesis Discov Innov Ophthalmol. 2020;9(1):33-37. Epub 2020 Jan 1. PMID: 31976341; PMCID: PMC6969556.
57. Grauslund J. Diabetic retinopathy screening in the emerging era of artificial intelligence. Diabetologia. 2022 Sep;65(9):1415-1423. doi: 10.1007/s00125-022-05727-0. Epub 2022 May 31. PMID: 35639120.
58. Rashidian P. Curcumin in ocular diseases: therapeutic potential, mechanisms of action, and innovative delivery systems. Medical hypothesis, discovery & innovation in optometry. 2025 May 1;6(1):36-42. doi: 10.51329/mehdioptometry220 (Link).
59. ElSayed NA, Aleppo G, Aroda VR, Bannuru RR, Brown FM, Bruemmer D, Collins BS, Hilliard ME, Isaacs D, Johnson EL, Kahan S, Khunti K, Leon J, Lyons SK, Perry ML, Prahalad P, Pratley RE, Jeffrie Seley J, Stanton RC, Gabbay RA, on behalf of the American Diabetes Association. 15. Management of Diabetes in Pregnancy: Standards of Care in Diabetes-2023. Diabetes Care. 2023 Jan 1;46(Suppl 1):S254-S266. doi: 10.2337/dc23-S015. PMID: 36507645; PMCID: PMC9810465.
60. Bourry J, Courteville H, Ramdane N, Drumez E, Duhamel A, Subtil D, Deruelle P, Vambergue A. Progression of Diabetic Retinopathy and Predictors of Its Development and Progression During Pregnancy in Patients With Type 1 Diabetes: A Report of 499 Pregnancies. Diabetes Care. 2021 Jan;44(1):181-187. doi: 10.2337/dc20-0904. Epub 2020 Nov 11. PMID: 33177172.
61. Pandya M, Banait S, Daigavane S. Insights Into Visual Rehabilitation: Pan-Retinal Photocoagulation for Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy. Cureus. 2024 Feb 15;16(2):e54273. doi: 10.7759/cureus.54273. PMID: 38496130; PMCID: PMC10944551.
62. Chan WC, Lim LT, Quinn MJ, Knox FA, McCance D, Best RM. Management and outcome of sight-threatening diabetic retinopathy in pregnancy. Eye (Lond). 2004 Aug;18(8):826-32. doi: 10.1038/sj.eye.6701340. PMID: 14976547.
63. Writing Committee for the Diabetic Retinopathy Clinical Research Network; Gross JG, Glassman AR, Jampol LM, Inusah S, Aiello LP, Antoszyk AN, Baker CW, Berger BB, Bressler NM, Browning D, Elman MJ, Ferris FL 3rd, Friedman SM, Marcus DM, Melia M, Stockdale CR, Sun JK, Beck RW. Panretinal Photocoagulation vs Intravitreous Ranibizumab for Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2015 Nov 24;314(20):2137-2146. doi: 10.1001/jama.2015.15217. Erratum in: JAMA. 2016 Mar 1;315(9):944. doi: 10.1001/jama.2016.1591. Erratum in: JAMA. 2019 Mar 12;321(10):1008. doi: 10.1001/jama.2019.0265. PMID: 26565927; PMCID: PMC5567801.
64. Zhang KX, Heisel CJ, Rahmani S. Intravitreal antivascular endothelial growth factor therapy during pregnancy: an update and current perspective. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2025 Sep 1;36(5):427-433. doi: 10.1097/ICU.0000000000001160. Epub 2025 Jul 2. PMID: 40600936.
65. Naderan M, Sabzevary M, Rezaii K, Banafshehafshan A, Hantoushzadeh S. Intravitreal anti-vascular endothelial growth factor medications during pregnancy: current perspective. Int Ophthalmol. 2021 Feb;41(2):743-751. doi: 10.1007/s10792-020-01610-2. Epub 2020 Oct 12. PMID: 33044671.
66. Kulkarni AD, Ip MS. Diabetic macular edema: therapeutic options. Diabetes Ther. 2012 Nov;3(1):1-14. doi: 10.1007/s13300-012-0002-y. Epub 2012 Mar 6. PMID: 22392532; PMCID: PMC3508119.
67. Mathew C, Yunirakasiwi A, Sanjay S. Updates in the management of diabetic macular edema. J Diabetes Res. 2015;2015:794036. doi: 10.1155/2015/794036. Epub 2015 Apr 23. PMID: 25984537; PMCID: PMC4423013.
68. Mallika P, Tan A, S A, T A, Alwi SS, Intan G. Diabetic retinopathy and the effect of pregnancy. Malays Fam Physician. 2010 Apr 30;5(1):2-5. PMID: 25606177; PMCID: PMC4170393.
69. Rashidian P. Roles, responsibilities, and job description of ophthalmic nurses, a universal definition is required. Medical hypothesis, discovery & innovation in optometry. 2022 Oct 28;3(2):55-6. doi: 10.51329/mehdioptometry151 (Link)
70. Lim JI, Regillo CD, Sadda SR, Ipp E, Bhaskaranand M, Ramachandra C, Solanki K. Artificial Intelligence Detection of Diabetic Retinopathy: Subgroup Comparison of the EyeArt System with Ophthalmologists' Dilated Examinations. Ophthalmol Sci. 2022 Sep 30;3(1):100228. doi: 10.1016/j.xops.2022.100228. PMID: 36345378; PMCID: PMC9636573.
71. Grzybowski A, Singhanetr P, Nanegrungsunk O, Ruamviboonsuk P. Artificial Intelligence for Diabetic Retinopathy Screening Using Color Retinal Photographs: From Development to Deployment. Ophthalmol Ther. 2023 Jun;12(3):1419-1437. doi: 10.1007/s40123-023-00691-3. Epub 2023 Mar 2. PMID: 36862308; PMCID: PMC10164194.
72. Chapman-Davies A, Lazarevic A. Valsalva maculopathy. Clin Exp Optom. 2002 Jan;85(1):42-5. doi: 10.1111/j.1444-0938.2002.tb03071.x. PMID: 11952395.
73. Tara F, Sharifi M, Hoseini E. Valsalva retinopathy in pregnancy: a case report. BMC Res Notes. 2015 Mar 4;8:67. doi: 10.1186/s13104-015-1029-8. PMID: 25889707; PMCID: PMC4434829.
74. Asteris P, Kalogeropoulos D, Moussa G, Vitos II, Christodoulou A, Kalogeropoulos C. A brief review of Valsalva retinopathy. Medical hypothesis, discovery & innovation in optometry. 2022 Oct 28;3(2):42-7. doi: 10.51329/mehdioptometry149 (Link)
75. Silva LO, de Oliveira LN, de Oliveira MN, de Oliveira Neto HL. Valsalva Retinopathy in a Young Patient: A Case Report. Cureus. 2025 Apr 26;17(4):e83039. doi: 10.7759/cureus.83039. PMID: 40421345; PMCID: PMC12105803.
76. Erkan Pota Ç, Apayd?n KC. Retinal and choroidal microvascular changes during pregnancy detected with OCTA. Can J Ophthalmol. 2024 Aug;59(4):e357-e364. doi: 10.1016/j.jcjo.2023.06.004. Epub 2023 Jun 28. PMID: 37393067.
77. Zhou B, Sarwar F, Ashkenazy N. Valsalva Retinopathy in Pregnancy: A Case Report and Review of the Literature. Int Med Case Rep J. 2025 Jun 30;18:777-784. doi: 10.2147/IMCRJ.S524362. PMID: 40621446; PMCID: PMC12227002.
78. Celik Dulger S, Ozdal PC, Teke MY. Valsalva retinopathy: Long-term results and management strategies. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2021 Jul;31(4):1953-1960. doi: 10.1177/1120672120936175. Epub 2020 Jun 25. PMID: 32586109.
79. Al-Mujaini AS, Montana CC. Valsalva retinopathy in pregnancy: a case report. J Med Case Rep. 2008 Apr 7;2:101. doi: 10.1186/1752-1947-2-101. PMID: 18394189; PMCID: PMC2311321.
80. Simakurthy S, Tripathy K. Valsalva Retinopathy. 2023 Aug 25. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 31424803.
81. Shukla D, Naresh KB, Kim R. Optical coherence tomography findings in valsalva retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005 Jul;140(1):134-6. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2004.12.026. PMID: 16038658.
82. Ladjimi A, Zaouali S, Messaoud R, Ben Yahia S, Attia S, Jenzri S, Khairallah M. Valsalva retinopathy induced by labour. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2002 Jul-Aug;12(4):336-8. doi: 10.1177/112067210201200417. PMID: 12220009.
83. Wickremasinghe SS, Tranos PG, Davey C. Valsalva haemorrhagic retinopathy in a pregnant woman: implications for delivery. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2003 Aug;81(4):420-2. doi: 10.1034/j.1600-0420.2003.00102.x. PMID: 12859280.
84. Ramskold LA, Asaria RH. Valsalva retinopathy secondary to hyperemesis gravidarum. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2012 May;162(1):118-9. doi: 10.1016/j.ejogrb.2012.02.003. Epub 2012 Mar 14. PMID: 22420999.
85. Bitton K, Bacquet JL, Amoroso F, Mrejen S, Paques M, Souied EH. Immediate post partum macular subretinal bleeding in a highly myopic patient: a case report. BMC Ophthalmol. 2021 Jan 21;21(1):54. doi: 10.1186/s12886-021-01814-9. PMID: 33478418; PMCID: PMC7819248.
86. Ong AY, Kiire CA, de Silva SR, Frise C. Collaborative care for pregnant women with eye conditions. Clin Med (Lond). 2025 May;25(3):100314. doi: 10.1016/j.clinme.2025.100314. Epub 2025 Apr 5. PMID: 40194701; PMCID: PMC12051513.
87. Bhimavarapu U, Battineni G. Automatic Microaneurysms Detection for Early Diagnosis of Diabetic Retinopathy Using Improved Discrete Particle Swarm Optimization. J Pers Med. 2022 Feb 20;12(2):317. doi: 10.3390/jpm12020317. PMID: 35207805; PMCID: PMC8878235.
88. Fonda SJ, Bursell SE, Lewis DG, Clary D, Shahon D, Horton MB. The Indian Health Service Primary Care-Based Teleophthalmology Program for Diabetic Eye Disease Surveillance and Management. Telemed J E Health. 2020 Dec;26(12):1466-1474. doi: 10.1089/tmj.2019.0281. Epub 2020 Jan 31. PMID: 32004436; PMCID: PMC7757525.
89. Wu CT, Lin TY, Lin CJ, Hwang DK. The future application of artificial intelligence and telemedicine in the retina: A perspective. Taiwan J Ophthalmol. 2023 Jun 13;13(2):133-141. doi: 10.4103/tjo.TJO-D-23-00028. PMID: 37484624; PMCID: PMC10361422.
90. Grzybowski A, Jin K, Zhou J, Pan X, Wang M, Ye J, Wong TY. Retina Fundus Photograph-Based Artificial Intelligence Algorithms in Medicine: A Systematic Review. Ophthalmol Ther. 2024 Aug;13(8):2125-2149. doi: 10.1007/s40123-024-00981-4. Epub 2024 Jun 24. PMID: 38913289; PMCID: PMC11246322.
91. Chen X, Wang J, Qian T, Wang J, Ding Y, Zhang S, Liao J, Cheng Q, Yang T, Mateen M, Fan Y, Song Z, Chen J, Li S, Hu J, Yan W, Chen H, Wu W, Huang J, Wong TY, Xu X. An artificial intelligence cloud platform for OCT-based retinal anomalies screening system in real clinical environments. NPJ Digit Med. 2025 Aug 29;8(1):559. doi: 10.1038/s41746-025-01959-7. PMID: 40883412; PMCID: PMC12397427.
92. Jürgens L, Yaici R, Schnitzler CM, Fleitmann AK, Roth M, Schröder K, Guthoff R. Retinal vascular occlusion in pregnancy: three case reports and a review of the literature. J Med Case Rep. 2022 Apr 21;16(1):167. doi: 10.1186/s13256-022-03369-9. PMID: 35449024; PMCID: PMC9022314.
93. Bahar MM, Ghalandarpoor-Attar SN, Shabani A, Hantoushzadeh S, Tabatabaei SA, Ghalandarpoor-Attar SM. Idiopathic combined retinal vessels occlusion in a pregnant woman: a case report. J Med Case Rep. 2022 May 15;16(1):191. doi: 10.1186/s13256-022-03421-8. PMID: 35568885; PMCID: PMC9107689.
94. Woo SC, Lip GY, Lip PL. Associations of retinal artery occlusion and retinal vein occlusion to mortality, stroke, and myocardial infarction: a systematic review. Eye (Lond). 2016 Aug;30(8):1031-8. doi: 10.1038/eye.2016.111. Epub 2016 Jun 3. PMID: 27256303; PMCID: PMC4985669.
95. Li Y, Hall NE, Pershing S, Hyman L, Haller JA, Lee AY, Lee CS, Chiang M, Lum F, Miller JW, Lorch A, Elze T. Age, Gender, and Laterality of Retinal Vascular Occlusion: A Retrospective Study from the IRIS® Registry. Ophthalmol Retina. 2022 Feb;6(2):161-171. doi: 10.1016/j.oret.2021.05.004. Epub 2021 May 12. PMID: 33991710; PMCID: PMC9178780.
96. Gray G, Nelson-Piercy C. Thromboembolic disorders in obstetrics. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2012 Feb;26(1):53-64. doi: 10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2011.10.003. Epub 2011 Nov 23. PMID: 22115745.
97. Chiang YT, Chen JH, Chen KH. The Molecular and Cellular Basis of Physiological Changes in Pregnancy and Its Implications in Neurologic and Ophthalmic Pathologies. Int J Mol Sci. 2025 May 29;26(11):5220. doi: 10.3390/ijms26115220. PMID: 40508034; PMCID: PMC12154306.
98. Park SJ, Choi NK, Seo KH, Park KH, Woo SJ. Retinal vein occlusion and pregnancy, pre-eclampsia, and eclampsia: the results from a nationwide, population-based study using the national claim database. PLoS One. 2015 Mar 16;10(3):e0120067. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0120067. PMID: 25774513; PMCID: PMC4361413.
99. Tripathy K, Shah SS, Waymack JR. Central Retinal Artery Occlusion. 2024 May 2. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 29262124.
100. Cochran ML, Mahabadi N, Czyz CN. Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion. 2023 Aug 8. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 30570991.
101. Blair K, Czyz CN. Central Retinal Vein Occlusion. 2023 May 1. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 30252241.
102. Karia N. Retinal vein occlusion: pathophysiology and treatment options. Clin Ophthalmol. 2010 Jul 30;4:809-16. doi: 10.2147/opth.s7631. PMID: 20689798; PMCID: PMC2915868.
103. Saxena S, Mishra N, Meyer CH, Akduman L. Ischaemia-reperfusion injury in central retinal artery occlusion. BMJ Case Rep. 2013 Oct 21;2013:bcr2013201415. doi: 10.1136/bcr-2013-201415. PMID: 24145508; PMCID: PMC3822202.
104. Fan W, Huang Y, Zhao Y, Yuan R. Central retinal artery occlusion without cherry-red spots. BMC Ophthalmol. 2023 Oct 25;23(1):434. doi: 10.1186/s12886-023-03176-w. PMID: 37880636; PMCID: PMC10601202.
105. Rim TH, Teo AWJ, Yang HHS, Cheung CY, Wong TY. Retinal Vascular Signs and Cerebrovascular Diseases. J Neuroophthalmol. 2020 Mar;40(1):44-59. doi: 10.1097/WNO.0000000000000888. PMID: 31977663.
106. McGrory S, Taylor AM, Pellegrini E, Ballerini L, Kirin M, Doubal FN, Wardlaw JM, Doney ASF, Dhillon B, Starr JM, Trucco E, Deary IJ, MacGillivray TJ. Towards Standardization of Quantitative Retinal Vascular Parameters: Comparison of SIVA and VAMPIRE Measurements in the Lothian Birth Cohort 1936. Transl Vis Sci Technol. 2018 Mar 23;7(2):12. doi: 10.1167/tvst.7.2.12. PMID: 29600120; PMCID: PMC5868859.
107. Perez-Rovira A, MacGillivray T, Trucco E, Chin KS, Zutis K, Lupascu C, Tegolo D, Giachetti A, Wilson PJ, Doney A, Dhillon B. VAMPIRE: Vessel assessment and measurement platform for images of the REtina. Annu Int Conf IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc. 2011;2011:3391-4. doi: 10.1109/IEMBS.2011.6090918. PMID: 22255067.
108. Wu Y, Shen L, Zhao L, Lin X, Xu M, Tu Z, Huang Y, Kong L, Lin Z, Lin D, Liu L, Wang X, Cao Z, Chen X, Zhou S, Hu W, Huang Y, Chen S, Dongye M, Zhang X, Wang D, Shi D, Wang Z, Wu X, Wang D, Lin H. Noninvasive early prediction of preeclampsia in pregnancy using retinal vascular features. NPJ Digit Med. 2025 Apr 5;8(1):188. doi: 10.1038/s41746-025-01582-6. PMID: 40188283; PMCID: PMC11972394.
109. Darabu? DM, D?r?bu? RG, Munteanu M. The Diagnosis and Treatment of Branch Retinal Vein Occlusions: An Update. Biomedicines. 2025 Jan 5;13(1):105. doi: 10.3390/biomedicines13010105. PMID: 39857689; PMCID: PMC11763247.
110. Schmidt-Erfurth U, Garcia-Arumi J, Gerendas BS, Midena E, Sivaprasad S, Tadayoni R, Wolf S, Loewenstein A. Guidelines for the Management of Retinal Vein Occlusion by the European Society of Retina Specialists (EURETINA). Ophthalmologica. 2019;242(3):123-162. doi: 10.1159/000502041. Epub 2019 Aug 14. PMID: 31412332.
111. D?r?bu? DM, Pac CP, Ro?ca C, Munteanu M. Macular dynamics and visual acuity prognosis in retinal vein occlusions - ways to connect. Rom J Ophthalmol. 2023 Jul-Sep;67(3):312-324. doi: 10.22336/rjo.2023.51. PMID: 37876516; PMCID: PMC10591427.
112. Polizzi S, Mahajan VB. Intravitreal Anti-VEGF Injections in Pregnancy: Case Series and Review of Literature. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2015 Dec;31(10):605-10. doi: 10.1089/jop.2015.0056. Epub 2015 Aug 24. PMID: 26302032; PMCID: PMC4677108.
113. Maglic D, Mandic-Markovic V, Mikovic Z, Maglic R, Anicic R, Mandic M. Impact of Inherited Thrombophilia on Pregnancy Complications and the Role of Low-Molecular-Weight Heparin Therapy: A Case-Control Study. Medicina (Kaunas). 2025 Jun 24;61(7):1131. doi: 10.3390/medicina61071131. PMID: 40731761; PMCID: PMC12298713.
114. Kurtz WS, Glueck CJ, Hutchins RK, Sisk RA, Wang P. Retinal artery and vein thrombotic occlusion during pregnancy: markers for familial thrombophilia and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Clin Ophthalmol. 2016 May 23;10:935-8. doi: 10.2147/OPTH.S106164. PMID: 27284238; PMCID: PMC4883821.
115. Demarinis G, Tatti F, Taloni A, Giugliano AV, Panthagani J, Myerscough J, Peiretti E, Giannaccare G. Treatments for Ocular Diseases in Pregnancy and Breastfeeding: A Narrative Review. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2023 Oct 9;16(10):1433. doi: 10.3390/ph16101433. PMID: 37895903; PMCID: PMC10610321.
116. Bar J, Cohen-Sacher B, Hod M, Blickstein D, Lahav J, Merlob P. Low-molecular-weight heparin for thrombophilia in pregnant women. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2000 Jun;69(3):209-13. doi: 10.1016/s0020-7292(00)00202-2. PMID: 10854861.
117. Lazo-Langner A, Hawel J, Ageno W, Kovacs MJ. Low molecular weight heparin for the treatment of retinal vein occlusion: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Haematologica. 2010 Sep;95(9):1587-93. doi: 10.3324/haematol.2010.023614. Epub 2010 Mar 19. PMID: 20305141; PMCID: PMC2930962.
118. Hormel TT, Hwang TS, Bailey ST, Wilson DJ, Huang D, Jia Y. Artificial intelligence in OCT angiography. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2021 Nov;85:100965. doi: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2021.100965. Epub 2021 Mar 22. PMID: 33766775; PMCID: PMC8455727.
119. Dhungana S, Sharrack B, Woodroofe N. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Acta Neurol Scand. 2010 Feb;121(2):71-82. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0404.2009.01172.x. Epub 2009 Nov 23. PMID: 19930211.
120. Byth LA, Lust K, Jeffree RL, Paine M, Voldanova L, Craven AM. Management of idiopathic intracranial hypertension in pregnancy. Obstet Med. 2022 Sep;15(3):160-167. doi: 10.1177/1753495X211021333. Epub 2021 Jun 9. PMID: 36262821; PMCID: PMC9574447.
121. Morton A. Headaches and papilloedema in a pregnant woman with polycystic ovarian syndrome. Obstet Med. 2011 Mar;4(1):28-9. doi: 10.1258/om.2010.100051. Epub 2011 Mar 1. PMID: 27579093; PMCID: PMC4989654.
122. Palermo M, Trevisi G, D'Arrigo S, Sturiale CL. Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension in Pregnancy. A Systematic Review on Clinical Course, Treatments, Delivery and Maternal-Fetal Outcome. Eur J Neurol. 2025 May;32(5):e70186. doi: 10.1111/ene.70186. PMID: 40391885; PMCID: PMC12090364.
123. Zhou C, Zhou Y, Liu L, Jiang H, Wei H, Zhou C, Ji X. Progress and recognition of idiopathic intracranial hypertension: A narrative review. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2024 Aug;30(8):e14895. doi: 10.1111/cns.14895. PMID: 39097911; PMCID: PMC11298205.
124. Amikam U, Baghlaf H, Badeghiesh A, Brown R, Dahan MH. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension and obstetric and neonatal outcomes: A 1:20 matched study from a population database. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2024 Sep;166(3):1040-1046. doi: 10.1002/ijgo.15481. Epub 2024 Mar 21. PMID: 38515238.
125. Wall M. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Neurol Clin. 2010 Aug;28(3):593-617. doi: 10.1016/j.ncl.2010.03.003. PMID: 20637991; PMCID: PMC2908600.
126. Nichani P, Micieli JA. Retinal Manifestations of Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension. Ophthalmol Retina. 2021 May;5(5):429-437. doi: 10.1016/j.oret.2020.08.016. Epub 2020 Aug 26. PMID: 32860958.
127. Mollan SP, Ali F, Hassan-Smith G, Botfield H, Friedman DI, Sinclair AJ. Evolving evidence in adult idiopathic intracranial hypertension: pathophysiology and management. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2016 Sep;87(9):982-92. doi: 10.1136/jnnp-2015-311302. Epub 2016 Feb 17. PMID: 26888960; PMCID: PMC5013119.
128. Thaller M, Homer V, Mollan SP, Sinclair AJ. Disease Course and Long-term Outcomes in Pregnant Women With Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension: The IIH Prospective Maternal Health Study. Neurology. 2023 Apr 11;100(15):e1598-e1610. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000206854. Epub 2023 Feb 7. PMID: 36750388; PMCID: PMC10103118.
129. Evans RW, Friedman DI. Expert opinion: the management of pseudotumor cerebri during pregnancy. Headache. 2000 Jun;40(6):495-7. doi: 10.1046/j.1526-4610.2000.00076.x. PMID: 10849049.
130. Lee AG, Pless M, Falardeau J, Capozzoli T, Wall M, Kardon RH. The use of acetazolamide in idiopathic intracranial hypertension during pregnancy. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005 May;139(5):855-9. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2004.12.091. PMID: 15860291.
131. Falardeau J, Lobb BM, Golden S, Maxfield SD, Tanne E. The use of acetazolamide during pregnancy in intracranial hypertension patients. J Neuroophthalmol. 2013 Mar;33(1):9-12. doi: 10.1097/WNO.0b013e3182594001. PMID: 22635167.
132. Thaller M, Wakerley BR, Abbott S, Tahrani AA, Mollan SP, Sinclair AJ. Managing idiopathic intracranial hypertension in pregnancy: practical advice. Pract Neurol. 2022 Aug;22(4):295-300. doi: 10.1136/practneurol-2021-003152. Epub 2022 Apr 21. PMID: 35450962; PMCID: PMC9304112.
133. Hernandez-Diaz S, Huybrechts KF, Desai RJ, Cohen JM, Mogun H, Pennell PB, Bateman BT, Patorno E. Topiramate use early in pregnancy and the risk of oral clefts: A pregnancy cohort study. Neurology. 2018 Jan 23;90(4):e342-e351. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000004857. Epub 2017 Dec 27. PMID: 29282333; PMCID: PMC5798655.
134. Celebisoy N, Gökçay F, Sirin H, Akyürekli O. Treatment of idiopathic intracranial hypertension: topiramate vs acetazolamide, an open-label study. Acta Neurol Scand. 2007 Nov;116(5):322-7. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0404.2007.00905.x. PMID: 17922725.
135. Hoffmann J, Mollan SP, Paemeleire K, Lampl C, Jensen RH, Sinclair AJ. European headache federation guideline on idiopathic intracranial hypertension. J Headache Pain. 2018 Oct 8;19(1):93. doi: 10.1186/s10194-018-0919-2. PMID: 30298346; PMCID: PMC6755569.
136. Koren G, Florescu A, Costei AM, Boskovic R, Moretti ME. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs during third trimester and the risk of premature closure of the ductus arteriosus: a meta-analysis. Ann Pharmacother. 2006 May;40(5):824-9. doi: 10.1345/aph.1G428. Epub 2006 Apr 25. PMID: 16638921. Esposito DB, Huybrechts KF, Werler MM, Straub L, Hernández-Díaz S, Mogun H, Bateman BT.
137. Esposito DB, Huybrechts KF, Werler MM, Straub L, Hernández-Díaz S, Mogun H, Bateman BT. Characteristics of Prescription Opioid Analgesics in Pregnancy and Risk of Neonatal Opioid Withdrawal Syndrome in Newborns. JAMA Netw Open. 2022 Aug 1;5(8):e2228588. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.28588. PMID: 36001312; PMCID: PMC9403776.
138. Kalyvas AV, Hughes M, Koutsarnakis C, Moris D, Liakos F, Sakas DE, Stranjalis G, Fouyas I. Efficacy, complications and cost of surgical interventions for idiopathic intracranial hypertension: a systematic review of the literature. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2017 Jan;159(1):33-49. doi: 10.1007/s00701-016-3010-2. Epub 2016 Nov 9. PMID: 27830325.
139. Do?an EA, Do?an S, Göksu ET, Özkaynak S, Aktan Ç, Mendilcio?lu ?. Ventriculoperitoneal shunt treatment in a pregnant renal transplant recipient with idiopathic intracranial hypertension: Case report and review of the literature. Neurol Neurochir Pol. 2018 May-Jun;52(3):401-405. doi: 10.1016/j.pjnns.2018.01.005. Epub 2018 Feb 6. PMID: 29455905.
140. Huna-Baron R, Kupersmith MJ. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension in pregnancy. J Neurol. 2002 Aug;249(8):1078-81. doi: 10.1007/s00415-002-0791-4. PMID: 12195458.
141. Kesler A, Kupferminc M. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension and pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2013 Jun;56(2):389-96. doi: 10.1097/GRF.0b013e31828f2701. PMID: 23563883.
142. Alves S, Sousa N, Cardoso LÍ, Alves J. Multidisciplinary management of idiopathic intracranial hypertension in pregnancy: case series and narrative review. Braz J Anesthesiol. 2022 Nov-Dec;72(6):790-794. doi: 10.1016/j.bjane.2021.02.030. Epub 2021 Mar 20. PMID: 33757747; PMCID: PMC9659994.
143. Aly EE, Lawther BK. Anaesthetic management of uncontrolled idiopathic intracranial hypertension during labour and delivery using an intrathecal catheter. Anaesthesia. 2007 Feb;62(2):178-81. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2044.2006.04891.x. PMID: 17223812.
144. Rambabu L, Edmiston T, Smith BG, Kohler K, Kolias AG, Bethlehem RAI, Keane PA, Marcus HJ, Consortium E, Hutchinson PJ, Bashford T. Detecting papilloedema as a marker of raised intracranial pressure using artificial intelligence: A systematic review. PLOS Digit Health. 2025 Sep 2;4(9):e0000783. doi: 10.1371/journal.pdig.0000783. PMID: 40892792; PMCID: PMC12404415.
145. Anandi L, Budihardja BM, Anggraini E, Badjrai RA, Nusanti S. The use of artificial intelligence in detecting papilledema from fundus photographs. Taiwan J Ophthalmol. 2023 Jun 1;13(2):184-190. doi: 10.4103/tjo.TJO-D-22-00178. PMID: 37484606; PMCID: PMC10361430.
146. Li A, Tandon AK, Sun G, Dinkin MJ, Oliveira C. Early Detection of Optic Nerve Changes on Optical Coherence Tomography Using Deep Learning for Risk-Stratification of Papilledema and Glaucoma. J Neuroophthalmol. 2024 Mar 1;44(1):47-52. doi: 10.1097/WNO.0000000000001945. Epub 2023 Jul 26. PMID: 37494177.
147. Fukui A, Tanaka H, Terao N, Nagata K, Matsumoto A, Kusada N, Kojima K, Sotozono C. Changes in Choroidal Thickness and Structure in Preeclampsia with Serous Retinal Detachment. J Clin Med. 2023 Jan 12;12(2):609. doi: 10.3390/jcm12020609. PMID: 36675538; PMCID: PMC9863981.
148. Neudorfer M, Spierer O, Goder M, Newman H, Barak S, Barak A, Asher-Landsberg I. The prevalence of retinal and optical coherence tomography findings in preeclamptic women. Retina. 2014 Jul;34(7):1376-83. doi: 10.1097/IAE.0000000000000085. PMID: 24393833.
149. Gupta A, Tripathy K. Central Serous Chorioretinopathy. 2023 Aug 25. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 32644399.
150. Daruich A, Matet A, Dirani A, Bousquet E, Zhao M, Farman N, Jaisser F, Behar-Cohen F. Central serous chorioretinopathy: Recent findings and new physiopathology hypothesis. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2015 Sep;48:82-118. doi: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.05.003. Epub 2015 May 27. PMID: 26026923.
151. Lu W, Tong Y, Yu Y, Xing Y, Chen C, Shen Y. Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Ophthalmology: General Overview. J Ophthalmol. 2018 Nov 19;2018:5278196. doi: 10.1155/2018/5278196. PMID: 30581604; PMCID: PMC6276430.
152. Hassan T, Akram MU, Hassan B, Syed AM, Bazaz SA. Automated segmentation of subretinal layers for the detection of macular edema. Appl Opt. 2016 Jan 20;55(3):454-61. doi: 10.1364/AO.55.000454. PMID: 26835917.
153. Akram MU, Tariq A, Khan SA, Javed MY. Automated detection of exudates and macula for grading of diabetic macular edema. Comput Methods Programs Biomed. 2014 Apr;114(2):141-52. doi: 10.1016/j.cmpb.2014.01.010. Epub 2014 Jan 21. PMID: 24548898.
154. Niemeijer M, van Ginneken B, Russell SR, Suttorp-Schulten MS, Abràmoff MD. Automated detection and differentiation of drusen, exudates, and cotton-wool spots in digital color fundus photographs for diabetic retinopathy diagnosis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2007 May;48(5):2260-7. doi: 10.1167/iovs.06-0996. PMID: 17460289; PMCID: PMC2739583.
155. Wang S, Tang HL, Al Turk LI, Hu Y, Sanei S, Saleh GM, Peto T. Localizing Microaneurysms in Fundus Images Through Singular Spectrum Analysis. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 2017 May;64(5):990-1002. doi: 10.1109/TBME.2016.2585344. Epub 2016 Jun 27. PMID: 27362756.
156. Shuang Yu, Di Xiao, Kanagasingam Y. Automatic detection of neovascularization on optic disk region with feature extraction and support vector machine. Annu Int Conf IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc. 2016 Aug;2016:1324-1327. doi: 10.1109/EMBC.2016.7590951. PMID: 28268569.
157. Kankrale R, Kokare M. Artificial intelligence in retinal image analysis for hypertensive retinopathy diagnosis: a comprehensive review and perspective. Vis Comput Ind Biomed Art. 2025 May 1;8(1):11. doi: 10.1186/s42492-025-00194-x. PMID: 40307650; PMCID: PMC12044089.
158. Zhou T, Gu S, Shao F, Li P, Wu Y, Xiong J, Wang B, Zhou C, Gao P, Hua X. Prediction of preeclampsia from retinal fundus images via deep learning in singleton pregnancies: a prospective cohort study. J Hypertens. 2024 Apr 1;42(4):701-710. doi: 10.1097/HJH.0000000000003658. Epub 2024 Jan 15. PMID: 38230614; PMCID: PMC10906188.
159. Alqahtani AS, Alshareef WM, Aljadani HT, Hawsawi WO, Shaheen MH. The efficacy of artificial intelligence in diabetic retinopathy screening: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Retina Vitreous. 2025 Apr 22;11(1):48. doi: 10.1186/s40942-025-00670-9. PMID: 40264218; PMCID: PMC12012971.
160. Wang Z, Li Z, Li K, Mu S, Zhou X, Di Y. Performance of artificial intelligence in diabetic retinopathy screening: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2023 Jun 13;14:1197783. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1197783. PMID: 37383397; PMCID: PMC10296189.
161. Zedadra A, Salah-Salah MY, Zedadra O, Guerrieri A. Multi-Modal AI for Multi-Label Retinal Disease Prediction Using OCT and Fundus Images: A Hybrid Approach. Sensors (Basel). 2025 Jul 19;25(14):4492. doi: 10.
2. Kepley JM, Bates K, Mohiuddin SS. Physiology, Maternal Changes. 2023 Mar 12. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 30969588.
3. Rashidian P, Karami S, Salehi SA. A review on retinopathy of prematurity. Med Hypothesis Discov Innov Ophthalmol. 2025 Feb 1;13(4):201-212. doi: 10.51329/mehdiophthal1511. PMID: 40065804; PMCID: PMC11890260.
4. Zhang P, Wang C, Liang Y, Shang Q. Retinal and choroidal microvascular features during pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 2024 Aug 17;14(8):e087319. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2024-087319. PMID: 39153771; PMCID: PMC11331858.
5. Naderan M. Ocular changes during pregnancy. J Curr Ophthalmol. 2018 Jan 3;30(3):202-210. doi: 10.1016/j.joco.2017.11.012. PMID: 30197948; PMCID: PMC6127369.
6. Stern EM, Blace N. Ocular Manifestations of Preeclampsia. 2024 Sep 10. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 35015414.
7. Rosu LM, Prodan-B?rbulescu C, Maghiari AL, Bernad ES, Bernad RL, Iacob R, Stoicescu ER, Borozan F, Ghenciu LA. Current Trends in Diagnosis and Treatment Approach of Diabetic Retinopathy during Pregnancy: A Narrative Review. Diagnostics (Basel). 2024 Feb 8;14(4):369. doi: 10.3390/diagnostics14040369. PMID: 38396408; PMCID: PMC10887682.
8. Anton N, Doroftei B, Ilie OD, Ciuntu RE, Bogd?nici CM, Nechita-Dumitriu I. A Narrative Review of the Complex Relationship between Pregnancy and Eye Changes. Diagnostics (Basel). 2021 Jul 23;11(8):1329. doi: 10.3390/diagnostics11081329. PMID: 34441264; PMCID: PMC8394444.
9. Srejovic JV, Muric MD, Jakovljevic VL, Srejovic IM, Sreckovic SB, Petrovic NT, Todorovic DZ, Bolevich SB, Sarenac Vulovic TS. Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms Involved in the Pathophysiology of Retinal Vascular Disease-Interplay Between Inflammation and Oxidative Stress. Int J Mol Sci. 2024 Nov 4;25(21):11850. doi: 10.3390/ijms252111850. PMID: 39519401; PMCID: PMC11546760.
10. Rosenthal JM, Johnson MW. Management of Retinal Diseases in Pregnant Patients. J Ophthalmic Vis Res. 2018 Jan-Mar;13(1):62-65. doi: 10.4103/jovr.jovr_195_17. PMID: 29403592; PMCID: PMC5782459.
11. Lee H, Yang SW, Kim Y, Shin H, Seo YS, Oh MJ, Choi S, Cho GJ, Hwang HS. Risk of retinopathy in women with pregnancy-induced hypertension: a nationwide population-based cohort study of 9-year follow-up after delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol MFM. 2023 Jul;5(7):100985. doi: 10.1016/j.ajogmf.2023.100985. Epub 2023 Apr 27. PMID: 37119970.
12. Warad C, Midha B, Pandey U, Sivakrishna P, Jain A, Bagadia B, Makhija V, Pravin Patil B, Cheguri S, B K B. Ocular Manifestations in Pregnancy-Induced Hypertension at a Tertiary Level Hospital in Karnataka, India. Cureus. 2023 Feb 12;15(2):e34887. doi: 10.7759/cureus.34887. PMID: 36925976; PMCID: PMC10011940.
13. Uma MS, Bhuvana S, Annamalai R, Muthayya M. Visual morbidity and spectrum of ophthalmic changes in pregnancy induced hypertension. J Family Med Prim Care. 2022 Jun;11(6):2488-2492. doi: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_1716_21. Epub 2022 Jun 30. PMID: 36119202; PMCID: PMC9480772.
14. Zamaladi I, Ruvuma S, Mceniery CM, Kwaga T, Wilkinson IB, Atwine D, Lugobe HM. Retinopathy among women with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy attending hospitals in Mbarara city, south-western Uganda: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2023 Oct 10;13(10):e076365. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2023-076365. PMID: 37816570; PMCID: PMC10565131.
15. Tripathy K, Modi P, Arsiwalla T. Hypertensive Retinopathy. 2025 Jul 6. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 30252236.
16. Reddy SC, Nalliah S, George SRA, Who TS. Fundus changes in pregnancy induced hypertension. Int J Ophthalmol. 2012 Dec 18;5(6):694–7. doi: 10.3980/j.issn.2222-3959.2012.06.08. PMCID: PMC3530810.
17. Di Marco E, Aiello F, Lombardo M, Di Marino M, Missiroli F, Mancino R, Ricci F, Nucci C, Noce A, Di Daniele N, Cesareo M. A literature review of hypertensive retinopathy: systemic correlations and new technologies. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2022 Sep;26(18):6424-6443. doi: 10.26355/eurrev_202209_29742. PMID: 36196693.
18. Chandran JR, Narayanan IB, Rajan J. Ocular Manifestations: Are They Significant in Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy? J Obstet Gynaecol India. 2021 Apr;71(2):118-123. doi: 10.1007/s13224-020-01385-7. Epub 2020 Nov 17. PMID: 34149212; PMCID: PMC8167031.
19. Chua J, Tan B, Wong D, Garhöfer G, Liew XW, Popa-Cherecheanu A, Loong Chin CW, Milea D, Li-Hsian Chen C, Schmetterer L. Optical coherence tomography angiography of the retina and choroid in systemic diseases. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2024 Nov;103:101292. doi: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2024.101292. Epub 2024 Aug 30. PMID: 39218142.
20. Kaliaperumal S, Setia S, Gupta A, Rao VA. Fetal birthweight and diastolic blood pressure: association with retinopathy in severe preeclampsia. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2008 Sep-Oct;18(5):809-12. doi: 10.1177/112067210801800524. PMID: 18850563.
21. He X, Ji Y, Yu M, Tong Y. Chorioretinal Alterations Induced by Preeclampsia. J Ophthalmol. 2021 Mar 10;2021:8847001. doi: 10.1155/2021/8847001. PMID: 33777446; PMCID: PMC7969093.
22. Tsukikawa M, Stacey AW. A Review of Hypertensive Retinopathy and Chorioretinopathy. Clin Optom (Auckl). 2020 May 5;12:67-73. doi: 10.2147/OPTO.S183492. PMID: 32440245; PMCID: PMC7211319.
23. Bourke K, Patel MR, Prisant LM, Marcus DM. Hypertensive choroidopathy. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 2004 Aug;6(8):471-2. doi: 10.1111/j.1524-6175.2004.3749.x. PMID: 15308890; PMCID: PMC8109303.
24. Christou EE, Ong AY, Frise C, Jalil A, Ivanova T, Georgalas I, de Silva SR. Evaluating the Chorioretinal Microcirculation in Preeclampsia with OCT-Angiography: A Narrative Literature Review. J Clin Med. 2025 Jun 2;14(11):3913. doi: 10.3390/jcm14113913. PMID: 40507675; PMCID: PMC12156824.
25. Fischer M, Schmutzhard E. Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome. J Neurol. 2017 Aug;264(8):1608-1616. doi: 10.1007/s00415-016-8377-8. Epub 2017 Jan 4. PMID: 28054130; PMCID: PMC5533845.
26. Roos NM, Wiegman MJ, Jansonius NM, Zeeman GG. Visual disturbances in (pre)eclampsia. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2012 Apr;67(4):242-50. doi: 10.1097/OGX.0b013e318250a457. PMID: 22495060.
27. Qin Q, Chen C, Cugati S. Ophthalmic associations in pregnancy. Aust J Gen Pract. 2020 Oct;49(10):673-680. doi: 10.31128/AJGP-10-19-5113. PMID: 33015686.
28. Rashidian P, Safari R, Salehi SA, Karami S. Retinal changes in preeclampsia. Medical hypothesis, discovery & innovation in optometry. 2024 Sep 1;5(2):76-84. doi: 10.51329/mehdioptometry201 (Link).
29. Hao S, Hao W, Ma Y. The features of serous retinal detachment in preeclampsia viewed on spectral-domain optical coherence tomography. Pregnancy Hypertens. 2024 Jun;36:101117. doi: 10.1016/j.preghy.2024.101117. Epub 2024 Feb 29. PMID: 38428345.
30. van Dijk EHC, Boon CJF. Serous business: Delineating the broad spectrum of diseases with subretinal fluid in the macula. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2021 Sep;84:100955. doi: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2021.100955. Epub 2021 Mar 11. PMID: 33716160.
31. Zebbache MH. Bilateral Exudative Retinal Detachment Complicating Preeclampsia With Partial Hemolysis, Elevated Liver Enzymes, and Low Platelet Count Syndrome. Cureus. 2021 Sep 8;13(9):e17825. doi: 10.7759/cureus.17825. PMID: 34660035; PMCID: PMC8500246.s
32. Phang DSK, Ariffin N, Abd Aziz H, Vendargon FM, Sonny Teo KS. Bilateral Serous Retinal Detachment in Pregnancy. Cureus. 2022 Oct 7;14(10):e30019. doi: 10.7759/cureus.30019. PMID: 36348857; PMCID: PMC9637277.
33. Abu Samra K. The eye and visual system in the preeclampsia/eclampsia syndrome: What to expect? Saudi J Ophthalmol. 2013 Jan;27(1):51-3. doi: 10.1016/j.sjopt.2012.04.003. Epub 2012 Apr 23. PMID: 23964188; PMCID: PMC3729391.
34. Nicholson B, Noble J, Forooghian F, Meyerle C. Central serous chorioretinopathy: update on pathophysiology and treatment. Surv Ophthalmol. 2013 Mar-Apr;58(2):103-26. doi: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2012.07.004. PMID: 23410821; PMCID: PMC3574296.
35. Semeraro F, Morescalchi F, Russo A, Gambicorti E, Pilotto A, Parmeggiani F, Bartollino S, Costagliola C. Central Serous Chorioretinopathy: Pathogenesis and Management. Clin Ophthalmol. 2019 Dec 2;13:2341-2352. doi: 10.2147/OPTH.S220845. PMID: 31819359; PMCID: PMC6897067.
36. Pole C, Gaw Stephanie SL, Tsui Irena I. Utility of optical coherence tomography angiography in pregnancy-associated central serous chorioretinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol Case Rep. 2020 Oct 22;20:100979. doi: 10.1016/j.ajoc.2020.100979. PMID: 33145456; PMCID: PMC7595881.
37. Yu J, Li L, Jiang C, Chang Q, Xu G. Clinical Characteristics of Pregnancy-Associated Central Serous Chorioretinopathy in the Chinese Population. J Ophthalmol. 2021 Dec 16;2021:5580075. doi: 10.1155/2021/5580075. PMID: 34956667; PMCID: PMC8702364.
38. Wang M, Munch IC, Hasler PW, Prünte C, Larsen M. Central serous chorioretinopathy. Acta Ophthalmol. 2008 Mar;86(2):126-45. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0420.2007.00889.x. Epub 2007 Jul 28. PMID: 17662099.
39. Narayanan S, Anantharaman G, Gopalakrishnan M, Anthony E. Spectral domain optical coherence tomography-guided laser treatment of central serous chorioretinopathy in a pregnant woman. Retin Cases Brief Rep. 2015 Winter;9(1):55-8. doi: 10.1097/ICB.0000000000000080. PMID: 25383837.
40. Haimovici R, Koh S, Gagnon DR, Lehrfeld T, Wellik S; Central Serous Chorioretinopathy Case-Control Study Group. Risk factors for central serous chorioretinopathy: a case-control study. Ophthalmology. 2004 Feb;111(2):244-9. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2003.09.024. PMID: 15019370.
41. Chandrasekaran PR, Madanagopalan VG, Narayanan R. Diabetic retinopathy in pregnancy - A review. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2021 Nov;69(11):3015-3025. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_1377_21. PMID: 34708737; PMCID: PMC8725079.
42. Rashidian P. Pregnancy and diabetic retinopathy. Medical hypothesis, discovery & innovation in optometry. 2024 Apr 30;5(1):35-42. doi: 10.51329/mehdioptometry195 (Link).
43. Mir TA, Finn AP. Pregnancy and diabetic retinopathy—considerations for evaluation and treatment: a review. Annals of Eye Science. 2023 Sep 30;8:14-. doi: 10.21037/aes-22-82 (Link).
44. Widyaputri F, Rogers SL, Kandasamy R, Shub A, Symons RCA, Lim LL. Global Estimates of Diabetic Retinopathy Prevalence and Progression in Pregnant Women With Preexisting Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2022 May 1;140(5):486-494. doi: 10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2022.0050. PMID: 35357410; PMCID: PMC8972153.
45. Lee SC, Siebert E, Raja V, Mehrotra C, Richards J, Khan J, Graham DF. Determinants of progression of diabetic retinopathy in pregnancy. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2024 Aug;214:111784. doi: 10.1016/j.diabres.2024.111784. Epub 2024 Jul 14. PMID: 39004310.
46. Rathinavelu J, Sarvepalli SM, Bailey B, D'Alessio D, Hadziahmetovic M. The Impact of Pregnancy on Diabetic Retinopathy: A Single-Site Study of Clinical Risk Factors. Ophthalmic Res. 2023;66(1):1169-1180. doi: 10.1159/000533416. Epub 2023 Aug 11. PMID: 37573783; PMCID: PMC10614555.
47. Errera MH, Kohly RP, da Cruz L. Pregnancy-associated retinal diseases and their management. Surv Ophthalmol. 2013 Mar-Apr;58(2):127-42. doi: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2012.08.001. PMID: 23410822.
48. Huang J, Liang C, Huang J, Liu L. Update on diabetic retinopathy during pregnancy. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2024 Nov;34(6):1695-1706. doi: 10.1177/11206721241248868. Epub 2024 May 6. PMID: 38710196.
49. Gale MJ, Scruggs BA, Flaxel CJ. Diabetic eye disease: A review of screening and management recommendations. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2021 Mar;49(2):128-145. doi: 10.1111/ceo.13894. Epub 2021 Jan 10. PMID: 33438363.
50. Choo PP, Md Din N, Azmi N, Bastion MC. Review of the management of sight-threatening diabetic retinopathy during pregnancy. World J Diabetes. 2021 Sep 15;12(9):1386-1400. doi: 10.4239/wjd.v12.i9.1386. PMID: 34630896; PMCID: PMC8472492.
51. Zhang J, Zhang J, Zhang C, Zhang J, Gu L, Luo D, Qiu Q. Diabetic Macular Edema: Current Understanding, Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Implications. Cells. 2022 Oct 25;11(21):3362. doi: 10.3390/cells11213362. PMID: 36359761; PMCID: PMC9655436.
52. Madike R, Cugati S, Qin Q, Chen C. Pregnancy and the eye: What do we need to watch out for? A review. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2024 Mar;52(2):234-247. doi: 10.1111/ceo.14346. Epub 2024 Jan 12. PMID: 38214050.
53. Le HG, Shakoor A. Diabetic and Retinal Vascular Eye Disease. Med Clin North Am. 2021 May;105(3):455-472. doi: 10.1016/j.mcna.2021.02.004. Epub 2021 Apr 2. PMID: 33926641.
54. Shukla UV, Tripathy K. Diabetic Retinopathy. 2023 Aug 25. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 32809640.
55. Relph S, Patel T, Delaney L, Sobhy S, Thangaratinam S. Adverse pregnancy outcomes in women with diabetes-related microvascular disease and risks of disease progression in pregnancy: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med. 2021 Nov 22;18(11):e1003856. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1003856. PMID: 34807920; PMCID: PMC8654151.
56. Karti O, Ipek SC, Saatci AO. Multimodal Imaging Characteristics of a Large Retinal Capillary Macroaneurysm in an Eye With Severe Diabetic Macular Edema: A Case Presentation and Literature Review. Med Hypothesis Discov Innov Ophthalmol. 2020;9(1):33-37. Epub 2020 Jan 1. PMID: 31976341; PMCID: PMC6969556.
57. Grauslund J. Diabetic retinopathy screening in the emerging era of artificial intelligence. Diabetologia. 2022 Sep;65(9):1415-1423. doi: 10.1007/s00125-022-05727-0. Epub 2022 May 31. PMID: 35639120.
58. Rashidian P. Curcumin in ocular diseases: therapeutic potential, mechanisms of action, and innovative delivery systems. Medical hypothesis, discovery & innovation in optometry. 2025 May 1;6(1):36-42. doi: 10.51329/mehdioptometry220 (Link).
59. ElSayed NA, Aleppo G, Aroda VR, Bannuru RR, Brown FM, Bruemmer D, Collins BS, Hilliard ME, Isaacs D, Johnson EL, Kahan S, Khunti K, Leon J, Lyons SK, Perry ML, Prahalad P, Pratley RE, Jeffrie Seley J, Stanton RC, Gabbay RA, on behalf of the American Diabetes Association. 15. Management of Diabetes in Pregnancy: Standards of Care in Diabetes-2023. Diabetes Care. 2023 Jan 1;46(Suppl 1):S254-S266. doi: 10.2337/dc23-S015. PMID: 36507645; PMCID: PMC9810465.
60. Bourry J, Courteville H, Ramdane N, Drumez E, Duhamel A, Subtil D, Deruelle P, Vambergue A. Progression of Diabetic Retinopathy and Predictors of Its Development and Progression During Pregnancy in Patients With Type 1 Diabetes: A Report of 499 Pregnancies. Diabetes Care. 2021 Jan;44(1):181-187. doi: 10.2337/dc20-0904. Epub 2020 Nov 11. PMID: 33177172.
61. Pandya M, Banait S, Daigavane S. Insights Into Visual Rehabilitation: Pan-Retinal Photocoagulation for Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy. Cureus. 2024 Feb 15;16(2):e54273. doi: 10.7759/cureus.54273. PMID: 38496130; PMCID: PMC10944551.
62. Chan WC, Lim LT, Quinn MJ, Knox FA, McCance D, Best RM. Management and outcome of sight-threatening diabetic retinopathy in pregnancy. Eye (Lond). 2004 Aug;18(8):826-32. doi: 10.1038/sj.eye.6701340. PMID: 14976547.
63. Writing Committee for the Diabetic Retinopathy Clinical Research Network; Gross JG, Glassman AR, Jampol LM, Inusah S, Aiello LP, Antoszyk AN, Baker CW, Berger BB, Bressler NM, Browning D, Elman MJ, Ferris FL 3rd, Friedman SM, Marcus DM, Melia M, Stockdale CR, Sun JK, Beck RW. Panretinal Photocoagulation vs Intravitreous Ranibizumab for Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2015 Nov 24;314(20):2137-2146. doi: 10.1001/jama.2015.15217. Erratum in: JAMA. 2016 Mar 1;315(9):944. doi: 10.1001/jama.2016.1591. Erratum in: JAMA. 2019 Mar 12;321(10):1008. doi: 10.1001/jama.2019.0265. PMID: 26565927; PMCID: PMC5567801.
64. Zhang KX, Heisel CJ, Rahmani S. Intravitreal antivascular endothelial growth factor therapy during pregnancy: an update and current perspective. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2025 Sep 1;36(5):427-433. doi: 10.1097/ICU.0000000000001160. Epub 2025 Jul 2. PMID: 40600936.
65. Naderan M, Sabzevary M, Rezaii K, Banafshehafshan A, Hantoushzadeh S. Intravitreal anti-vascular endothelial growth factor medications during pregnancy: current perspective. Int Ophthalmol. 2021 Feb;41(2):743-751. doi: 10.1007/s10792-020-01610-2. Epub 2020 Oct 12. PMID: 33044671.
66. Kulkarni AD, Ip MS. Diabetic macular edema: therapeutic options. Diabetes Ther. 2012 Nov;3(1):1-14. doi: 10.1007/s13300-012-0002-y. Epub 2012 Mar 6. PMID: 22392532; PMCID: PMC3508119.
67. Mathew C, Yunirakasiwi A, Sanjay S. Updates in the management of diabetic macular edema. J Diabetes Res. 2015;2015:794036. doi: 10.1155/2015/794036. Epub 2015 Apr 23. PMID: 25984537; PMCID: PMC4423013.
68. Mallika P, Tan A, S A, T A, Alwi SS, Intan G. Diabetic retinopathy and the effect of pregnancy. Malays Fam Physician. 2010 Apr 30;5(1):2-5. PMID: 25606177; PMCID: PMC4170393.
69. Rashidian P. Roles, responsibilities, and job description of ophthalmic nurses, a universal definition is required. Medical hypothesis, discovery & innovation in optometry. 2022 Oct 28;3(2):55-6. doi: 10.51329/mehdioptometry151 (Link)
70. Lim JI, Regillo CD, Sadda SR, Ipp E, Bhaskaranand M, Ramachandra C, Solanki K. Artificial Intelligence Detection of Diabetic Retinopathy: Subgroup Comparison of the EyeArt System with Ophthalmologists' Dilated Examinations. Ophthalmol Sci. 2022 Sep 30;3(1):100228. doi: 10.1016/j.xops.2022.100228. PMID: 36345378; PMCID: PMC9636573.
71. Grzybowski A, Singhanetr P, Nanegrungsunk O, Ruamviboonsuk P. Artificial Intelligence for Diabetic Retinopathy Screening Using Color Retinal Photographs: From Development to Deployment. Ophthalmol Ther. 2023 Jun;12(3):1419-1437. doi: 10.1007/s40123-023-00691-3. Epub 2023 Mar 2. PMID: 36862308; PMCID: PMC10164194.
72. Chapman-Davies A, Lazarevic A. Valsalva maculopathy. Clin Exp Optom. 2002 Jan;85(1):42-5. doi: 10.1111/j.1444-0938.2002.tb03071.x. PMID: 11952395.
73. Tara F, Sharifi M, Hoseini E. Valsalva retinopathy in pregnancy: a case report. BMC Res Notes. 2015 Mar 4;8:67. doi: 10.1186/s13104-015-1029-8. PMID: 25889707; PMCID: PMC4434829.
74. Asteris P, Kalogeropoulos D, Moussa G, Vitos II, Christodoulou A, Kalogeropoulos C. A brief review of Valsalva retinopathy. Medical hypothesis, discovery & innovation in optometry. 2022 Oct 28;3(2):42-7. doi: 10.51329/mehdioptometry149 (Link)
75. Silva LO, de Oliveira LN, de Oliveira MN, de Oliveira Neto HL. Valsalva Retinopathy in a Young Patient: A Case Report. Cureus. 2025 Apr 26;17(4):e83039. doi: 10.7759/cureus.83039. PMID: 40421345; PMCID: PMC12105803.
76. Erkan Pota Ç, Apayd?n KC. Retinal and choroidal microvascular changes during pregnancy detected with OCTA. Can J Ophthalmol. 2024 Aug;59(4):e357-e364. doi: 10.1016/j.jcjo.2023.06.004. Epub 2023 Jun 28. PMID: 37393067.
77. Zhou B, Sarwar F, Ashkenazy N. Valsalva Retinopathy in Pregnancy: A Case Report and Review of the Literature. Int Med Case Rep J. 2025 Jun 30;18:777-784. doi: 10.2147/IMCRJ.S524362. PMID: 40621446; PMCID: PMC12227002.
78. Celik Dulger S, Ozdal PC, Teke MY. Valsalva retinopathy: Long-term results and management strategies. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2021 Jul;31(4):1953-1960. doi: 10.1177/1120672120936175. Epub 2020 Jun 25. PMID: 32586109.
79. Al-Mujaini AS, Montana CC. Valsalva retinopathy in pregnancy: a case report. J Med Case Rep. 2008 Apr 7;2:101. doi: 10.1186/1752-1947-2-101. PMID: 18394189; PMCID: PMC2311321.
80. Simakurthy S, Tripathy K. Valsalva Retinopathy. 2023 Aug 25. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 31424803.
81. Shukla D, Naresh KB, Kim R. Optical coherence tomography findings in valsalva retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005 Jul;140(1):134-6. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2004.12.026. PMID: 16038658.
82. Ladjimi A, Zaouali S, Messaoud R, Ben Yahia S, Attia S, Jenzri S, Khairallah M. Valsalva retinopathy induced by labour. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2002 Jul-Aug;12(4):336-8. doi: 10.1177/112067210201200417. PMID: 12220009.
83. Wickremasinghe SS, Tranos PG, Davey C. Valsalva haemorrhagic retinopathy in a pregnant woman: implications for delivery. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2003 Aug;81(4):420-2. doi: 10.1034/j.1600-0420.2003.00102.x. PMID: 12859280.
84. Ramskold LA, Asaria RH. Valsalva retinopathy secondary to hyperemesis gravidarum. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2012 May;162(1):118-9. doi: 10.1016/j.ejogrb.2012.02.003. Epub 2012 Mar 14. PMID: 22420999.
85. Bitton K, Bacquet JL, Amoroso F, Mrejen S, Paques M, Souied EH. Immediate post partum macular subretinal bleeding in a highly myopic patient: a case report. BMC Ophthalmol. 2021 Jan 21;21(1):54. doi: 10.1186/s12886-021-01814-9. PMID: 33478418; PMCID: PMC7819248.
86. Ong AY, Kiire CA, de Silva SR, Frise C. Collaborative care for pregnant women with eye conditions. Clin Med (Lond). 2025 May;25(3):100314. doi: 10.1016/j.clinme.2025.100314. Epub 2025 Apr 5. PMID: 40194701; PMCID: PMC12051513.
87. Bhimavarapu U, Battineni G. Automatic Microaneurysms Detection for Early Diagnosis of Diabetic Retinopathy Using Improved Discrete Particle Swarm Optimization. J Pers Med. 2022 Feb 20;12(2):317. doi: 10.3390/jpm12020317. PMID: 35207805; PMCID: PMC8878235.
88. Fonda SJ, Bursell SE, Lewis DG, Clary D, Shahon D, Horton MB. The Indian Health Service Primary Care-Based Teleophthalmology Program for Diabetic Eye Disease Surveillance and Management. Telemed J E Health. 2020 Dec;26(12):1466-1474. doi: 10.1089/tmj.2019.0281. Epub 2020 Jan 31. PMID: 32004436; PMCID: PMC7757525.
89. Wu CT, Lin TY, Lin CJ, Hwang DK. The future application of artificial intelligence and telemedicine in the retina: A perspective. Taiwan J Ophthalmol. 2023 Jun 13;13(2):133-141. doi: 10.4103/tjo.TJO-D-23-00028. PMID: 37484624; PMCID: PMC10361422.
90. Grzybowski A, Jin K, Zhou J, Pan X, Wang M, Ye J, Wong TY. Retina Fundus Photograph-Based Artificial Intelligence Algorithms in Medicine: A Systematic Review. Ophthalmol Ther. 2024 Aug;13(8):2125-2149. doi: 10.1007/s40123-024-00981-4. Epub 2024 Jun 24. PMID: 38913289; PMCID: PMC11246322.
91. Chen X, Wang J, Qian T, Wang J, Ding Y, Zhang S, Liao J, Cheng Q, Yang T, Mateen M, Fan Y, Song Z, Chen J, Li S, Hu J, Yan W, Chen H, Wu W, Huang J, Wong TY, Xu X. An artificial intelligence cloud platform for OCT-based retinal anomalies screening system in real clinical environments. NPJ Digit Med. 2025 Aug 29;8(1):559. doi: 10.1038/s41746-025-01959-7. PMID: 40883412; PMCID: PMC12397427.
92. Jürgens L, Yaici R, Schnitzler CM, Fleitmann AK, Roth M, Schröder K, Guthoff R. Retinal vascular occlusion in pregnancy: three case reports and a review of the literature. J Med Case Rep. 2022 Apr 21;16(1):167. doi: 10.1186/s13256-022-03369-9. PMID: 35449024; PMCID: PMC9022314.
93. Bahar MM, Ghalandarpoor-Attar SN, Shabani A, Hantoushzadeh S, Tabatabaei SA, Ghalandarpoor-Attar SM. Idiopathic combined retinal vessels occlusion in a pregnant woman: a case report. J Med Case Rep. 2022 May 15;16(1):191. doi: 10.1186/s13256-022-03421-8. PMID: 35568885; PMCID: PMC9107689.
94. Woo SC, Lip GY, Lip PL. Associations of retinal artery occlusion and retinal vein occlusion to mortality, stroke, and myocardial infarction: a systematic review. Eye (Lond). 2016 Aug;30(8):1031-8. doi: 10.1038/eye.2016.111. Epub 2016 Jun 3. PMID: 27256303; PMCID: PMC4985669.
95. Li Y, Hall NE, Pershing S, Hyman L, Haller JA, Lee AY, Lee CS, Chiang M, Lum F, Miller JW, Lorch A, Elze T. Age, Gender, and Laterality of Retinal Vascular Occlusion: A Retrospective Study from the IRIS® Registry. Ophthalmol Retina. 2022 Feb;6(2):161-171. doi: 10.1016/j.oret.2021.05.004. Epub 2021 May 12. PMID: 33991710; PMCID: PMC9178780.
96. Gray G, Nelson-Piercy C. Thromboembolic disorders in obstetrics. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2012 Feb;26(1):53-64. doi: 10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2011.10.003. Epub 2011 Nov 23. PMID: 22115745.
97. Chiang YT, Chen JH, Chen KH. The Molecular and Cellular Basis of Physiological Changes in Pregnancy and Its Implications in Neurologic and Ophthalmic Pathologies. Int J Mol Sci. 2025 May 29;26(11):5220. doi: 10.3390/ijms26115220. PMID: 40508034; PMCID: PMC12154306.
98. Park SJ, Choi NK, Seo KH, Park KH, Woo SJ. Retinal vein occlusion and pregnancy, pre-eclampsia, and eclampsia: the results from a nationwide, population-based study using the national claim database. PLoS One. 2015 Mar 16;10(3):e0120067. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0120067. PMID: 25774513; PMCID: PMC4361413.
99. Tripathy K, Shah SS, Waymack JR. Central Retinal Artery Occlusion. 2024 May 2. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 29262124.
100. Cochran ML, Mahabadi N, Czyz CN. Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion. 2023 Aug 8. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 30570991.
101. Blair K, Czyz CN. Central Retinal Vein Occlusion. 2023 May 1. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 30252241.
102. Karia N. Retinal vein occlusion: pathophysiology and treatment options. Clin Ophthalmol. 2010 Jul 30;4:809-16. doi: 10.2147/opth.s7631. PMID: 20689798; PMCID: PMC2915868.
103. Saxena S, Mishra N, Meyer CH, Akduman L. Ischaemia-reperfusion injury in central retinal artery occlusion. BMJ Case Rep. 2013 Oct 21;2013:bcr2013201415. doi: 10.1136/bcr-2013-201415. PMID: 24145508; PMCID: PMC3822202.
104. Fan W, Huang Y, Zhao Y, Yuan R. Central retinal artery occlusion without cherry-red spots. BMC Ophthalmol. 2023 Oct 25;23(1):434. doi: 10.1186/s12886-023-03176-w. PMID: 37880636; PMCID: PMC10601202.
105. Rim TH, Teo AWJ, Yang HHS, Cheung CY, Wong TY. Retinal Vascular Signs and Cerebrovascular Diseases. J Neuroophthalmol. 2020 Mar;40(1):44-59. doi: 10.1097/WNO.0000000000000888. PMID: 31977663.
106. McGrory S, Taylor AM, Pellegrini E, Ballerini L, Kirin M, Doubal FN, Wardlaw JM, Doney ASF, Dhillon B, Starr JM, Trucco E, Deary IJ, MacGillivray TJ. Towards Standardization of Quantitative Retinal Vascular Parameters: Comparison of SIVA and VAMPIRE Measurements in the Lothian Birth Cohort 1936. Transl Vis Sci Technol. 2018 Mar 23;7(2):12. doi: 10.1167/tvst.7.2.12. PMID: 29600120; PMCID: PMC5868859.
107. Perez-Rovira A, MacGillivray T, Trucco E, Chin KS, Zutis K, Lupascu C, Tegolo D, Giachetti A, Wilson PJ, Doney A, Dhillon B. VAMPIRE: Vessel assessment and measurement platform for images of the REtina. Annu Int Conf IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc. 2011;2011:3391-4. doi: 10.1109/IEMBS.2011.6090918. PMID: 22255067.
108. Wu Y, Shen L, Zhao L, Lin X, Xu M, Tu Z, Huang Y, Kong L, Lin Z, Lin D, Liu L, Wang X, Cao Z, Chen X, Zhou S, Hu W, Huang Y, Chen S, Dongye M, Zhang X, Wang D, Shi D, Wang Z, Wu X, Wang D, Lin H. Noninvasive early prediction of preeclampsia in pregnancy using retinal vascular features. NPJ Digit Med. 2025 Apr 5;8(1):188. doi: 10.1038/s41746-025-01582-6. PMID: 40188283; PMCID: PMC11972394.
109. Darabu? DM, D?r?bu? RG, Munteanu M. The Diagnosis and Treatment of Branch Retinal Vein Occlusions: An Update. Biomedicines. 2025 Jan 5;13(1):105. doi: 10.3390/biomedicines13010105. PMID: 39857689; PMCID: PMC11763247.
110. Schmidt-Erfurth U, Garcia-Arumi J, Gerendas BS, Midena E, Sivaprasad S, Tadayoni R, Wolf S, Loewenstein A. Guidelines for the Management of Retinal Vein Occlusion by the European Society of Retina Specialists (EURETINA). Ophthalmologica. 2019;242(3):123-162. doi: 10.1159/000502041. Epub 2019 Aug 14. PMID: 31412332.
111. D?r?bu? DM, Pac CP, Ro?ca C, Munteanu M. Macular dynamics and visual acuity prognosis in retinal vein occlusions - ways to connect. Rom J Ophthalmol. 2023 Jul-Sep;67(3):312-324. doi: 10.22336/rjo.2023.51. PMID: 37876516; PMCID: PMC10591427.
112. Polizzi S, Mahajan VB. Intravitreal Anti-VEGF Injections in Pregnancy: Case Series and Review of Literature. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2015 Dec;31(10):605-10. doi: 10.1089/jop.2015.0056. Epub 2015 Aug 24. PMID: 26302032; PMCID: PMC4677108.
113. Maglic D, Mandic-Markovic V, Mikovic Z, Maglic R, Anicic R, Mandic M. Impact of Inherited Thrombophilia on Pregnancy Complications and the Role of Low-Molecular-Weight Heparin Therapy: A Case-Control Study. Medicina (Kaunas). 2025 Jun 24;61(7):1131. doi: 10.3390/medicina61071131. PMID: 40731761; PMCID: PMC12298713.
114. Kurtz WS, Glueck CJ, Hutchins RK, Sisk RA, Wang P. Retinal artery and vein thrombotic occlusion during pregnancy: markers for familial thrombophilia and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Clin Ophthalmol. 2016 May 23;10:935-8. doi: 10.2147/OPTH.S106164. PMID: 27284238; PMCID: PMC4883821.
115. Demarinis G, Tatti F, Taloni A, Giugliano AV, Panthagani J, Myerscough J, Peiretti E, Giannaccare G. Treatments for Ocular Diseases in Pregnancy and Breastfeeding: A Narrative Review. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2023 Oct 9;16(10):1433. doi: 10.3390/ph16101433. PMID: 37895903; PMCID: PMC10610321.
116. Bar J, Cohen-Sacher B, Hod M, Blickstein D, Lahav J, Merlob P. Low-molecular-weight heparin for thrombophilia in pregnant women. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2000 Jun;69(3):209-13. doi: 10.1016/s0020-7292(00)00202-2. PMID: 10854861.
117. Lazo-Langner A, Hawel J, Ageno W, Kovacs MJ. Low molecular weight heparin for the treatment of retinal vein occlusion: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Haematologica. 2010 Sep;95(9):1587-93. doi: 10.3324/haematol.2010.023614. Epub 2010 Mar 19. PMID: 20305141; PMCID: PMC2930962.
118. Hormel TT, Hwang TS, Bailey ST, Wilson DJ, Huang D, Jia Y. Artificial intelligence in OCT angiography. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2021 Nov;85:100965. doi: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2021.100965. Epub 2021 Mar 22. PMID: 33766775; PMCID: PMC8455727.
119. Dhungana S, Sharrack B, Woodroofe N. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Acta Neurol Scand. 2010 Feb;121(2):71-82. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0404.2009.01172.x. Epub 2009 Nov 23. PMID: 19930211.
120. Byth LA, Lust K, Jeffree RL, Paine M, Voldanova L, Craven AM. Management of idiopathic intracranial hypertension in pregnancy. Obstet Med. 2022 Sep;15(3):160-167. doi: 10.1177/1753495X211021333. Epub 2021 Jun 9. PMID: 36262821; PMCID: PMC9574447.
121. Morton A. Headaches and papilloedema in a pregnant woman with polycystic ovarian syndrome. Obstet Med. 2011 Mar;4(1):28-9. doi: 10.1258/om.2010.100051. Epub 2011 Mar 1. PMID: 27579093; PMCID: PMC4989654.
122. Palermo M, Trevisi G, D'Arrigo S, Sturiale CL. Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension in Pregnancy. A Systematic Review on Clinical Course, Treatments, Delivery and Maternal-Fetal Outcome. Eur J Neurol. 2025 May;32(5):e70186. doi: 10.1111/ene.70186. PMID: 40391885; PMCID: PMC12090364.
123. Zhou C, Zhou Y, Liu L, Jiang H, Wei H, Zhou C, Ji X. Progress and recognition of idiopathic intracranial hypertension: A narrative review. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2024 Aug;30(8):e14895. doi: 10.1111/cns.14895. PMID: 39097911; PMCID: PMC11298205.
124. Amikam U, Baghlaf H, Badeghiesh A, Brown R, Dahan MH. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension and obstetric and neonatal outcomes: A 1:20 matched study from a population database. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2024 Sep;166(3):1040-1046. doi: 10.1002/ijgo.15481. Epub 2024 Mar 21. PMID: 38515238.
125. Wall M. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Neurol Clin. 2010 Aug;28(3):593-617. doi: 10.1016/j.ncl.2010.03.003. PMID: 20637991; PMCID: PMC2908600.
126. Nichani P, Micieli JA. Retinal Manifestations of Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension. Ophthalmol Retina. 2021 May;5(5):429-437. doi: 10.1016/j.oret.2020.08.016. Epub 2020 Aug 26. PMID: 32860958.
127. Mollan SP, Ali F, Hassan-Smith G, Botfield H, Friedman DI, Sinclair AJ. Evolving evidence in adult idiopathic intracranial hypertension: pathophysiology and management. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2016 Sep;87(9):982-92. doi: 10.1136/jnnp-2015-311302. Epub 2016 Feb 17. PMID: 26888960; PMCID: PMC5013119.
128. Thaller M, Homer V, Mollan SP, Sinclair AJ. Disease Course and Long-term Outcomes in Pregnant Women With Idiopathic Intracranial Hypertension: The IIH Prospective Maternal Health Study. Neurology. 2023 Apr 11;100(15):e1598-e1610. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000206854. Epub 2023 Feb 7. PMID: 36750388; PMCID: PMC10103118.
129. Evans RW, Friedman DI. Expert opinion: the management of pseudotumor cerebri during pregnancy. Headache. 2000 Jun;40(6):495-7. doi: 10.1046/j.1526-4610.2000.00076.x. PMID: 10849049.
130. Lee AG, Pless M, Falardeau J, Capozzoli T, Wall M, Kardon RH. The use of acetazolamide in idiopathic intracranial hypertension during pregnancy. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005 May;139(5):855-9. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2004.12.091. PMID: 15860291.
131. Falardeau J, Lobb BM, Golden S, Maxfield SD, Tanne E. The use of acetazolamide during pregnancy in intracranial hypertension patients. J Neuroophthalmol. 2013 Mar;33(1):9-12. doi: 10.1097/WNO.0b013e3182594001. PMID: 22635167.
132. Thaller M, Wakerley BR, Abbott S, Tahrani AA, Mollan SP, Sinclair AJ. Managing idiopathic intracranial hypertension in pregnancy: practical advice. Pract Neurol. 2022 Aug;22(4):295-300. doi: 10.1136/practneurol-2021-003152. Epub 2022 Apr 21. PMID: 35450962; PMCID: PMC9304112.
133. Hernandez-Diaz S, Huybrechts KF, Desai RJ, Cohen JM, Mogun H, Pennell PB, Bateman BT, Patorno E. Topiramate use early in pregnancy and the risk of oral clefts: A pregnancy cohort study. Neurology. 2018 Jan 23;90(4):e342-e351. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000004857. Epub 2017 Dec 27. PMID: 29282333; PMCID: PMC5798655.
134. Celebisoy N, Gökçay F, Sirin H, Akyürekli O. Treatment of idiopathic intracranial hypertension: topiramate vs acetazolamide, an open-label study. Acta Neurol Scand. 2007 Nov;116(5):322-7. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0404.2007.00905.x. PMID: 17922725.
135. Hoffmann J, Mollan SP, Paemeleire K, Lampl C, Jensen RH, Sinclair AJ. European headache federation guideline on idiopathic intracranial hypertension. J Headache Pain. 2018 Oct 8;19(1):93. doi: 10.1186/s10194-018-0919-2. PMID: 30298346; PMCID: PMC6755569.
136. Koren G, Florescu A, Costei AM, Boskovic R, Moretti ME. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs during third trimester and the risk of premature closure of the ductus arteriosus: a meta-analysis. Ann Pharmacother. 2006 May;40(5):824-9. doi: 10.1345/aph.1G428. Epub 2006 Apr 25. PMID: 16638921. Esposito DB, Huybrechts KF, Werler MM, Straub L, Hernández-Díaz S, Mogun H, Bateman BT.
137. Esposito DB, Huybrechts KF, Werler MM, Straub L, Hernández-Díaz S, Mogun H, Bateman BT. Characteristics of Prescription Opioid Analgesics in Pregnancy and Risk of Neonatal Opioid Withdrawal Syndrome in Newborns. JAMA Netw Open. 2022 Aug 1;5(8):e2228588. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.28588. PMID: 36001312; PMCID: PMC9403776.
138. Kalyvas AV, Hughes M, Koutsarnakis C, Moris D, Liakos F, Sakas DE, Stranjalis G, Fouyas I. Efficacy, complications and cost of surgical interventions for idiopathic intracranial hypertension: a systematic review of the literature. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2017 Jan;159(1):33-49. doi: 10.1007/s00701-016-3010-2. Epub 2016 Nov 9. PMID: 27830325.
139. Do?an EA, Do?an S, Göksu ET, Özkaynak S, Aktan Ç, Mendilcio?lu ?. Ventriculoperitoneal shunt treatment in a pregnant renal transplant recipient with idiopathic intracranial hypertension: Case report and review of the literature. Neurol Neurochir Pol. 2018 May-Jun;52(3):401-405. doi: 10.1016/j.pjnns.2018.01.005. Epub 2018 Feb 6. PMID: 29455905.
140. Huna-Baron R, Kupersmith MJ. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension in pregnancy. J Neurol. 2002 Aug;249(8):1078-81. doi: 10.1007/s00415-002-0791-4. PMID: 12195458.
141. Kesler A, Kupferminc M. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension and pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2013 Jun;56(2):389-96. doi: 10.1097/GRF.0b013e31828f2701. PMID: 23563883.
142. Alves S, Sousa N, Cardoso LÍ, Alves J. Multidisciplinary management of idiopathic intracranial hypertension in pregnancy: case series and narrative review. Braz J Anesthesiol. 2022 Nov-Dec;72(6):790-794. doi: 10.1016/j.bjane.2021.02.030. Epub 2021 Mar 20. PMID: 33757747; PMCID: PMC9659994.
143. Aly EE, Lawther BK. Anaesthetic management of uncontrolled idiopathic intracranial hypertension during labour and delivery using an intrathecal catheter. Anaesthesia. 2007 Feb;62(2):178-81. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2044.2006.04891.x. PMID: 17223812.
144. Rambabu L, Edmiston T, Smith BG, Kohler K, Kolias AG, Bethlehem RAI, Keane PA, Marcus HJ, Consortium E, Hutchinson PJ, Bashford T. Detecting papilloedema as a marker of raised intracranial pressure using artificial intelligence: A systematic review. PLOS Digit Health. 2025 Sep 2;4(9):e0000783. doi: 10.1371/journal.pdig.0000783. PMID: 40892792; PMCID: PMC12404415.
145. Anandi L, Budihardja BM, Anggraini E, Badjrai RA, Nusanti S. The use of artificial intelligence in detecting papilledema from fundus photographs. Taiwan J Ophthalmol. 2023 Jun 1;13(2):184-190. doi: 10.4103/tjo.TJO-D-22-00178. PMID: 37484606; PMCID: PMC10361430.
146. Li A, Tandon AK, Sun G, Dinkin MJ, Oliveira C. Early Detection of Optic Nerve Changes on Optical Coherence Tomography Using Deep Learning for Risk-Stratification of Papilledema and Glaucoma. J Neuroophthalmol. 2024 Mar 1;44(1):47-52. doi: 10.1097/WNO.0000000000001945. Epub 2023 Jul 26. PMID: 37494177.
147. Fukui A, Tanaka H, Terao N, Nagata K, Matsumoto A, Kusada N, Kojima K, Sotozono C. Changes in Choroidal Thickness and Structure in Preeclampsia with Serous Retinal Detachment. J Clin Med. 2023 Jan 12;12(2):609. doi: 10.3390/jcm12020609. PMID: 36675538; PMCID: PMC9863981.
148. Neudorfer M, Spierer O, Goder M, Newman H, Barak S, Barak A, Asher-Landsberg I. The prevalence of retinal and optical coherence tomography findings in preeclamptic women. Retina. 2014 Jul;34(7):1376-83. doi: 10.1097/IAE.0000000000000085. PMID: 24393833.
149. Gupta A, Tripathy K. Central Serous Chorioretinopathy. 2023 Aug 25. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 32644399.
150. Daruich A, Matet A, Dirani A, Bousquet E, Zhao M, Farman N, Jaisser F, Behar-Cohen F. Central serous chorioretinopathy: Recent findings and new physiopathology hypothesis. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2015 Sep;48:82-118. doi: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.05.003. Epub 2015 May 27. PMID: 26026923.
151. Lu W, Tong Y, Yu Y, Xing Y, Chen C, Shen Y. Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Ophthalmology: General Overview. J Ophthalmol. 2018 Nov 19;2018:5278196. doi: 10.1155/2018/5278196. PMID: 30581604; PMCID: PMC6276430.
152. Hassan T, Akram MU, Hassan B, Syed AM, Bazaz SA. Automated segmentation of subretinal layers for the detection of macular edema. Appl Opt. 2016 Jan 20;55(3):454-61. doi: 10.1364/AO.55.000454. PMID: 26835917.
153. Akram MU, Tariq A, Khan SA, Javed MY. Automated detection of exudates and macula for grading of diabetic macular edema. Comput Methods Programs Biomed. 2014 Apr;114(2):141-52. doi: 10.1016/j.cmpb.2014.01.010. Epub 2014 Jan 21. PMID: 24548898.
154. Niemeijer M, van Ginneken B, Russell SR, Suttorp-Schulten MS, Abràmoff MD. Automated detection and differentiation of drusen, exudates, and cotton-wool spots in digital color fundus photographs for diabetic retinopathy diagnosis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2007 May;48(5):2260-7. doi: 10.1167/iovs.06-0996. PMID: 17460289; PMCID: PMC2739583.
155. Wang S, Tang HL, Al Turk LI, Hu Y, Sanei S, Saleh GM, Peto T. Localizing Microaneurysms in Fundus Images Through Singular Spectrum Analysis. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 2017 May;64(5):990-1002. doi: 10.1109/TBME.2016.2585344. Epub 2016 Jun 27. PMID: 27362756.
156. Shuang Yu, Di Xiao, Kanagasingam Y. Automatic detection of neovascularization on optic disk region with feature extraction and support vector machine. Annu Int Conf IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc. 2016 Aug;2016:1324-1327. doi: 10.1109/EMBC.2016.7590951. PMID: 28268569.
157. Kankrale R, Kokare M. Artificial intelligence in retinal image analysis for hypertensive retinopathy diagnosis: a comprehensive review and perspective. Vis Comput Ind Biomed Art. 2025 May 1;8(1):11. doi: 10.1186/s42492-025-00194-x. PMID: 40307650; PMCID: PMC12044089.
158. Zhou T, Gu S, Shao F, Li P, Wu Y, Xiong J, Wang B, Zhou C, Gao P, Hua X. Prediction of preeclampsia from retinal fundus images via deep learning in singleton pregnancies: a prospective cohort study. J Hypertens. 2024 Apr 1;42(4):701-710. doi: 10.1097/HJH.0000000000003658. Epub 2024 Jan 15. PMID: 38230614; PMCID: PMC10906188.
159. Alqahtani AS, Alshareef WM, Aljadani HT, Hawsawi WO, Shaheen MH. The efficacy of artificial intelligence in diabetic retinopathy screening: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Retina Vitreous. 2025 Apr 22;11(1):48. doi: 10.1186/s40942-025-00670-9. PMID: 40264218; PMCID: PMC12012971.
160. Wang Z, Li Z, Li K, Mu S, Zhou X, Di Y. Performance of artificial intelligence in diabetic retinopathy screening: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2023 Jun 13;14:1197783. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1197783. PMID: 37383397; PMCID: PMC10296189.
161. Zedadra A, Salah-Salah MY, Zedadra O, Guerrieri A. Multi-Modal AI for Multi-Label Retinal Disease Prediction Using OCT and Fundus Images: A Hybrid Approach. Sensors (Basel). 2025 Jul 19;25(14):4492. doi: 10.
- Abstract Viewed: 0 times
- Full Text PDF Downloaded: 0 times