Update on coronavirus disease and retinal artery occlusion
Medical hypothesis, discovery & innovation in optometry,
Vol. 5 No. 4 (2024),
2 March 2025
,
Page 169-177
https://doi.org/10.51329/mehdioptometry212
Abstract
Background: The novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is significant not only for its life-threatening impact, but also for its association with serious eye disorders, including retinal artery occlusion. This language-inclusive narrative review analyzed the available clinical literature on retinal artery occlusion linked to COVID-19, highlighting it as a serious vision-threatening complication of this disease during the recent pandemic.Methods: A targeted literature search was conducted in the PubMed / MEDLINE and Google Scholar databases from January 1, 2020, to January 1, 2025, to gather the most recent evidence. Studies were identified through various combinations of the following search terms: “eye diseases in COVID-19,” “ocular findings,” “ocular manifestations in COVID-19,” “posterior segment alterations in COVID-19,” and “retinal artery occlusion in COVID-19.” Articles with relevant clinical significance were selected for review. The reference lists of these papers also manually checked for other relevant papers. We included case reports, case series, and both prospective and retrospective studies that reported cases of central retinal artery occlusion (CRAO) or branch retinal artery occlusion (BRAO) in patients of any age, sex, and race with confirmed COVID-19.
Results: We found 27 records, of which 21 reported cases of CRAO in patients with COVID-19. The mean (standard deviation) age of these patients was 54.1 (13.4) years (range: 30–77 years). Off the 21 patients, 18 (86%) were men and three (14%) were women. In three cases, bilateral involvement was noted; in one such instance, CRAO was diagnosed sequentially: in the left eye while the patient had COVID-19, and in the right eye 1.5 months later. Among the cases of unilateral CRAO, the left eye was the most frequently affected. Additionally, four cases of BRAO were reported in patients with COVID-19, with most of these patients being women. Most of these cases were diagnosed in the left eye within 1 month of a COVID-19 diagnosis. Notably, in the majority of cases involving CRAO or BRAO, vascular thromboembolic events were not reported. Additionally, two case series reported a total of 17 patients with COVID-19 who were diagnosed with CRAO.
Conclusions: Although strong evidence of a causal relationship is lacking, healthcare specialists should be aware that CRAO or BRAO may be ocular complications of COVID-19. This is particularly important with the emergence of new subvariants of SARS-CoV-2 and in asymptomatic patients, and considering the availability of rapid viral antigen tests will make it easier to check if the patient with CRAO or BRAO actually have asymptomatic COVID-19.
Keywords:
- SARS-CoV-2
- COVID-19
- ocular manifestations
- branch retinal artery occlusion
- central retinal artery occlusion
- high blood pressure
- diabetes mellitus
References
1. Altabás MJ, Arias-Peso B, Altabás MA. Abrupt loss of vision: Retinal artery occlusion. Visual Journal of Emergency Medicine. 2022 Jan 1;26:101266. doi: 10.1016/j.visj.2021.101266 (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2405469021003022)
2. Kim J, Byun SJ, Woo SJ, Park KH, Park SJ. Assessment of Trends in the Incidence Rates of Central Retinal Artery Occlusion in Korea From 2002 to 2015. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2021 Apr 1;139(4):399-405. doi: 10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2020.6860. PMID: 33570556; PMCID: PMC7879389.
3. Venkatesh R, Joshi A, Maltsev D, Munk M, Prabhu V, Bavaskar S, Mangla R, Ruamviboonsuk P, Chhablani J. Update on central retinal artery occlusion. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2024 Jul 1;72(7):945-955. doi: 10.4103/IJO.IJO_2826_23. Epub 2024 Jun 22. PMID: 38905460; PMCID: PMC11329807.
4. Schorr EM, Rossi KC, Stein LK, Park BL, Tuhrim S, Dhamoon MS. Characteristics and Outcomes of Retinal Artery Occlusion: Nationally Representative Data. Stroke. 2020 Mar;51(3):800-807. doi: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.119.027034. Epub 2020 Jan 17. PMID: 31951154.
5. Yusefi AR, Sharifi M, Nasabi NS, Rezabeigi Davarani E, Bastani P. Health human resources challenges during COVID-19 pandemic; evidence of a qualitative study in a developing country. PLoS One. 2022 Jan 24;17(1):e0262887. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0262887. PMID: 35073374; PMCID: PMC8786119.
6. Reviglio VE, Osaba M, Reviglio V, Chiaradia P, Kuo IC, O'Brien TP. COVID-19 and Ophthalmology: A New Chapter in an Old Story. Med Hypothesis Discov Innov Ophthalmol. 2020 Summer;9(2):71-73. Epub 2020 Mar 4. PMID: 32490013; PMCID: PMC7134243.
7. Hu K, Patel J, Swiston C, Patel BC. Ophthalmic Manifestations of Coronavirus (COVID-19). 2024 May 6. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 32310553.
8. Jevnikar K, Jaki Mekjavic P, Vidovic Valentincic N, Petrovski G, Globocnik Petrovic M. An Update on COVID-19 Related Ophthalmic Manifestations. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2021 May 19;29(4):684-689. doi: 10.1080/09273948.2021.1896008. Epub 2021 Apr 7. PMID: 33826465.
9. Bertoli F, Veritti D, Danese C, Samassa F, Sarao V, Rassu N, Gambato T, Lanzetta P. Ocular Findings in COVID-19 Patients: A Review of Direct Manifestations and Indirect Effects on the Eye. J Ophthalmol. 2020 Aug 27;2020:4827304. doi: 10.1155/2020/4827304. PMID: 32963819; PMCID: PMC7491448.
10. Szcz??niak M, Brydak-Godowska J. SARS-CoV-2 and the Eyes: A Review of the Literature on Transmission, Detection, and Ocular Manifestations. Med Sci Monit. 2021 Sep 11;27:e931863. doi: 10.12659/MSM.931863. PMID: 34508064; PMCID: PMC8439119.
11. Keyal K, Wang F. Ophthalmic Manifestations in COVID-19 Patients, a Review. Discov Med. 2021 Jul-Aug;32(165):7-11. PMID: 35219351.
12. Roshanshad A, Ashraf MA, Roshanshad R, Kharmandar A, Zomorodian SA, Ashraf H. Ocular Manifestations of Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019: A Comprehensive Review. J Ophthalmic Vis Res. 2021 Apr 29;16(2):234-247. doi: 10.18502/jovr.v16i2.9087. PMID: 34055261; PMCID: PMC8126735.
13. Douglas KAA, Douglas VP, Moschos MM. Ocular Manifestations of COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2): A Critical Review of Current Literature. In Vivo. 2020 Jun;34(3 Suppl):1619-1628. doi: 10.21873/invivo.11952. PMID: 32503820; PMCID: PMC8378034.
14. Bal S, Chodosh J. Ocular Manifestations, Virulence, and Transmissibility of SARS-CoV-2: A Review of the Literature by Region. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 2022 Apr 1;62(2):1-18. doi: 10.1097/IIO.0000000000000420. PMID: 35325907.
15. Chougule N, Mangoli MV, Kumar A, Reddy VB, Tenagi AL. Ocular manifestations in SARS COVID admitted patients: A hospital-based study. Indian Journal of Health Sciences and Biomedical Research kleu. 2022 Jan 1;15(1):46-9. doi: 10.4103/kleuhsj.kleuhsj_168_21 (https://journals.lww.com/kleu/fulltext/2022/15010/ocular_manifestations_in_sars_covid_admitted.9.aspx).
16. Tran E, Phu V, Xu R, Teoderascu A, Aly M, Shah N, Malvankar-Mehta MS. Ocular manifestations of COVID-19: systematic review and meta-analysis. Can J Ophthalmol. 2024 Oct;59(5):e435-e452. doi: 10.1016/j.jcjo.2023.08.003. Epub 2023 Sep 5. PMID: 37683691.
17. Rokohl AC, Grajewski RS, Matos PAW, Kopecky A, Heindl LM, Cursiefen C. Ocular Involvement in COVID-19: Conjunctivitis and More. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd. 2021 May;238(5):555-560. English, German. doi: 10.1055/a-1344-8138. Epub 2021 May 21. PMID: 34020483.
18. Madani S. Acute and sub-acute ocular manifestations in pediatric patients with COVID-19: A systematic review. Med Hypothesis Discov Innov Ophthalmol. 2022 Apr 1;11(1):11-18. doi: 10.51329/mehdiophthal1440. PMID: 37641695; PMCID: PMC10445324.
19. D'Alessandro E, Kawasaki A, Eandi CM. Pathogenesis of Vascular Retinal Manifestations in COVID-19 Patients: A Review. Biomedicines. 2022 Oct 26;10(11):2710. doi: 10.3390/biomedicines10112710. PMID: 36359227; PMCID: PMC9687698.
20. Invernizzi A. The impact of COVID-19 on the retina: clinical features and management considerations. Expert Review of Ophthalmology. 2022 Jan 2;17(1):53-60. doi:10.1080/17469899.2022.2021877 (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17469899.2022.2021877).
21. Sanghi P, Malik M, Hossain IT, Manzouri B. Ocular Complications in the Prone Position in the Critical Care Setting: The COVID-19 Pandemic. J Intensive Care Med. 2021 Mar;36(3):361-372. doi: 10.1177/0885066620959031. Epub 2020 Sep 28. PMID: 32985317.
22. Au SC, Ko CK. Prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 among central retinal artery occlusion patients: A case series-HORA study report No. 3. Journal of Acute Disease. 2021 Jul 1;10(4):147-9. doi: : 10.4103/2221-6189.318644 (https://journals.lww.com/joad/fulltext/2021/10040/Prevalence_of_SARS_CoV_2_among_central_retinal.3.aspx).
23. Fonollosa A, Hernández-Rodríguez J, Cuadros C, Giralt L, Sacristán C, Artaraz J, Pelegrín L, Olate-Pérez Á, Romero R, Pastor-Idoate S, Sobas Bsc EM, Fernández-Fidalgo S, Abraldes MJ, Oleñik A, Insausti-García A, Torres P, Porcar C, Lorca DR, Adan A; Spanish Society of Ocular Inflammation (SEIOC); Spanish Society of Ocular Inflammation (SEIOC). CHARACTERIZING COVID-19-RELATED RETINAL VASCULAR OCCLUSIONS: A Case Series and Review of the Literature. Retina. 2022 Mar 1;42(3):465-475. doi: 10.1097/IAE.0000000000003327. PMID: 34914345.
24. Acharya S, Diamond M, Anwar S, Glaser A, Tyagi P. Unique case of central retinal artery occlusion secondary to COVID-19 disease. IDCases. 2020;21:e00867. doi: 10.1016/j.idcr.2020.e00867. Epub 2020 Jun 18. PMID: 32572363; PMCID: PMC7301806.
25. Montesel A, Bucolo C, Mouvet V, Moret E, Eandi CM. Case Report: Central Retinal Artery Occlusion in a COVID-19 Patient. Front Pharmacol. 2020 Dec 23;11:588384. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2020.588384. PMID: 33424598; PMCID: PMC7785811.
26. Turedi N, Onal Gunay B. Paracentral acute middle maculopathy in the setting of central retinal artery occlusion following COVID-19 diagnosis. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2022 May;32(3):NP62-NP66. doi: 10.1177/1120672121995347. Epub 2021 Feb 14. PMID: 33583231; PMCID: PMC9111906.
27. Latigan KL, Latigan DA, Dubnov KE, Bykova EV, Nefedov DA. A clinical case of central retinal artery occlusion after pneumonia caused by SARS-COV-2 (COVID-19). Acta Biomed Sci. 2021;6:41-7. doi: 10.29413/ABS.2021-6.6-1.5 (https://www.actabiomedica.ru/jour/article/view/3109).
28. Ucar F, Cetinkaya S. Central retinal artery occlusion in a patient who contracted COVID-19 and review of similar cases. BMJ Case Rep. 2021 Jul 27;14(7):e244181. doi: 10.1136/bcr-2021-244181. PMID: 34315751; PMCID: PMC8317104.
29. Been Sayeed SKJ, Chandra Das S, Mahmud R, Moniruzzaman M, Rahman MM. Acute Ischemic Stroke With Central Retinal Artery Occlusion as a Rare Presentation of COVID-19 Disease. Cureus. 2021 Aug 26;13(8):e17469. doi: 10.7759/cureus.17469. PMID: 34589363; PMCID: PMC8464349.
30. Sweid A, Hammoud B, Weinberg JH, Oneissi M, Raz E, Shapiro M, DePrince M, Tjoumakaris S, Gooch MR, Herial NA, Zarzour H, Romo V, Rosenwasser RH, Jabbour P. Letter: Thrombotic Neurovascular Disease in COVID-19 Patients. Neurosurgery. 2020 Sep 1;87(3):E400-E406. doi: 10.1093/neuros/nyaa254. PMID: 32496534; PMCID: PMC7313768.
31. Murchison AP, Sweid A, Dharia R, Theofanis TN, Tjoumakaris SI, Jabbour PM, Bilyk JR. Monocular visual loss as the presenting symptom of COVID-19 infection. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2021 Feb;201:106440. doi: 10.1016/j.clineuro.2020.106440. Epub 2020 Dec 15. PMID: 33383464; PMCID: PMC7831816.
32. Paul L, Jain T, Singh S. Retinal manifestations of ophthalmic artery occlusion with ischemic stroke in a young patient with COVID-19. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2022 Apr;70(4):1415-1417. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_2828_21. PMID: 35326070; PMCID: PMC9240522.
33. Jervis M, Purohit K, Greener V, Kumar R. Thromboembolic Storm in the Recovering Stage of COVID-19: A Case Report. EMJ. 2022 Mar;7(1):22-7. doi: 10.33590/emj/21-00210 (https://www.emjreviews.com/flagship-journal/article/eds-pick-thromboembolic-storm-in-the-recovering-stage-of-covid-19-a-case-report-j190121/).
34. Shroff D, Kumar S, Naidu A, Gupta C, Shroff CM. Retinal vasoocclusive spectrum following COVID-19. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2022 Apr;70(4):1412-1415. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_2837_21. PMID: 35326069; PMCID: PMC9240570.
35. Bapaye MM, Nair AG, Bapaye CM, Bapaye MM, Shukla JJ. Simultaneous Bilateral Central Retinal Artery Occlusion following COVID-19 Infection. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2021 May 19;29(4):671-674. doi: 10.1080/09273948.2021.1891262. Epub 2021 Apr 15. PMID: 33856275.
36. Karahan M, Erdem S, Hazar L, Dursun ME, Ava S, Emek H, Keklikci U. Bilateral Central Retinal Artery Occlusion Secondary to SARS-CoV-2 Infection in the Early and Late Periods: A Case Report. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd. 2021 Dec;238(12):1325-1327. English. doi: 10.1055/a-1353-5915. Epub 2021 Feb 19. PMID: 33607682.
37. Walinjkar JA. Combined Retinal Vascular Occlusion in a Recovered Case of COVID-19. Apollo Medicine. 2021 Jul 1;18(3):205-7. doi: 10.4103/am.am_38_21 (https://journals.lww.com/apmd/fulltext/2021/18030/combined_retinal_vascular_occlusion_in_a_recovered.14.aspx).
38. Sanjay S, Srinivasan P, Jayadev C, Mahendradas P, Gupta A, Kawali A, Shetty R. Post COVID-19 Ophthalmic Manifestations in an Asian Indian Male. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2021 May 19;29(4):656-661. doi: 10.1080/09273948.2020.1870147. Epub 2021 Mar 18. PMID: 33733987.
39. Raj A, Kaur N, Kaur N. Cavernous sinus thrombosis with central retinal artey occlusion in COVID-19: A case report and review of literature. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2021 May;69(5):1327-1329. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_3770_20. PMID: 33913893; PMCID: PMC8186592.
40. Larochelle RD, Koduri VA, Chen RC, Subramanian PS. Embolic Abducens Palsy and Central Retinal Artery Occlusion in a Patient With COVID-19. J Neuroophthalmol. 2022 Jun 1;42(2):e500-e501. doi: 10.1097/WNO.0000000000001291. PMID: 33813532.
41. Yalç?nbay?r Ö, Uçan Gündüz G, Co?kun F, Hakyemez B, Do?anay S. Different Cases, Different Manifestations of Post-COVID-19 Retinal Artery Occlusion: A Case Series. Turk J Ophthalmol. 2023 Apr 20;53(2):124-129. doi: 10.4274/tjo.galenos.2022.36930. PMID: 37089035; PMCID: PMC10127544.
42. Heidarzadeh HR, Abrishami M, Motamed Shariati M, Ghavami Shahri SH, Ansari Astaneh MR. Atypical Central Retinal Artery Occlusion following COVID-19 Infection: A Case Report. Case Rep Ophthalmol. 2023 Aug 30;14(1):405-410. doi: 10.1159/000532108. PMID: 37901628; PMCID: PMC10601811.
43. de Oliveira MR, Lucena ARV, Higino TM, Ventura CV. Central retinal artery occlusion with cilioretinal artery sparing secondary to COVID-19: Additional ocular complication. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2023 Feb;71(2):663-666. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_1246_22. PMID: 36727384; PMCID: PMC10228942.
44. Blyden KM, Fashina T, Randleman C, Pearce W, Wells J, Yeh S, Shantha JG. Ocular Ischemic Events and Vision Loss Associated with COVID-19 Acute Hypoxic Respiratory Failure. COVID. 2024 Jun 27;4(7):890-5. doi: 10.3390/covid4070061 (https://www.mdpi.com/2673-8112/4/7/61)
45. Uzun A, Keles Sahin A, Bektas O. A Unique Case of Branch Retinal Artery Occlusion Associated with a Relatively Mild Coronavirus Disease 2019. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2021 May 19;29(4):715-718. doi: 10.1080/09273948.2021.1933071. Epub 2021 Jul 12. PMID: 34252339.
46. Nourinia R, Ghassempour M, Ahmadieh H, Abtahi SH. Branch retinal vein occlusion after COVID-19. J Fr Ophtalmol. 2021 Oct;44(8):e441-e443. doi: 10.1016/j.jfo.2021.06.003. Epub 2021 Jul 8. PMID: 34325925; PMCID: PMC8264517.
47. Ate? O, Y?ld?r?m M, Y?ld?r?m K. Branch Retinal Artery Occlusion in Patient with COVID-19: Case Report. Korean J Ophthalmol. 2021 Dec;35(6):484-485. doi: 10.3341/kjo.2021.0008. Epub 2021 Sep 6. PMID: 34488254; PMCID: PMC8666251.
48. Jiang Z, Ji H, Zhang H, Dong Z, Dong J. Branch retinal artery occlusion in a patient with COVID-19 infection: A case report. J Int Med Res. 2024 Oct;52(10):3000605241284931. doi: 10.1177/03000605241284931. PMID: 39351991; PMCID: PMC11529667.
49. Au SCL, Ko CKL. Central Retinal Artery Occlusion in Patients with COVID-19: Imaging for Underlying Causes. Radiology. 2021 Jul;300(1):E315. doi: 10.1148/radiol.2021210479. Epub 2021 Mar 30. PMID: 33787341; PMCID: PMC8893177.
50. Lecler A, Cotton F, Lersy F, Kremer S, Héran F; SFNR's COVID Study Group. Ocular MRI Findings in Patients with Severe COVID-19: A Retrospective Multicenter Observational Study. Radiology. 2021 May;299(2):E226-E229. doi: 10.1148/radiol.2021204394. Epub 2021 Feb 16. Erratum in: Radiology. 2022 Jan;302(1):E4. doi: 10.1148/radiol.2021219025. PMID: 33591889; PMCID: PMC7887777.
51. Connors JM, Levy JH. COVID-19 and its implications for thrombosis and anticoagulation. Blood. 2020 Jun 4;135(23):2033-2040. doi: 10.1182/blood.2020006000. PMID: 32339221; PMCID: PMC7273827.
52. Gavriilaki E, Brodsky RA. Severe COVID-19 infection and thrombotic microangiopathy: success does not come easily. Br J Haematol. 2020 Jun;189(6):e227-e230. doi: 10.1111/bjh.16783. Epub 2020 May 23. PMID: 32369610.
53. Levi M, Thachil J, Iba T, Levy JH. Coagulation abnormalities and thrombosis in patients with COVID-19. Lancet Haematol. 2020 Jun;7(6):e438-e440. doi: 10.1016/S2352-3026(20)30145-9. Epub 2020 May 11. PMID: 32407672; PMCID: PMC7213964.
54. Terpos E, Ntanasis-Stathopoulos I, Elalamy I, Kastritis E, Sergentanis TN, Politou M, Psaltopoulou T, Gerotziafas G, Dimopoulos MA. Hematological findings and complications of COVID-19. Am J Hematol. 2020 Jul;95(7):834-847. doi: 10.1002/ajh.25829. Epub 2020 May 23. PMID: 32282949; PMCID: PMC7262337.
55. Iba T, Connors JM, Levy JH. The coagulopathy, endotheliopathy, and vasculitis of COVID-19. Inflamm Res. 2020 Dec;69(12):1181-1189. doi: 10.1007/s00011-020-01401-6. Epub 2020 Sep 12. PMID: 32918567; PMCID: PMC7486586.
56. Mancuso P, Gidaro A, Gregato G, Raveane A, Cremonesi P, Quarna J, Caccia S, Gusso L, Rusconi S, Giacomelli A, Cogliati C, Bertolini F. Circulating endothelial progenitors are increased in COVID-19 patients and correlate with SARS-CoV-2 RNA in severe cases. J Thromb Haemost. 2020 Oct;18(10):2744-2750. doi: 10.1111/jth.15044. Epub 2020 Aug 31. PMID: 32762140; PMCID: PMC7436444.
57. Quinaglia T, Shabani M, Breder I, Silber HA, Lima JAC, Sposito AC. Coronavirus disease-19: The multi-level, multi-faceted vasculopathy. Atherosclerosis. 2021 Apr;322:39-50. doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2021.02.009. Epub 2021 Feb 15. PMID: 33706082; PMCID: PMC7883684.
58. Pérez-Mies B, Gómez-Rojo M, Carretero-Barrio I, Bardi T, Benito A, García-Cosío M, Caballero Á, de Pablo R, Galán JC, Pestaña D, Palacios J. Pulmonary vascular proliferation in patients with severe COVID-19: an autopsy study. Thorax. 2021 Oct;76(10):1044-1046. doi: 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2020-216714. Epub 2021 Mar 23. PMID: 33758071; PMCID: PMC7992389.
59. Bikdeli B, Madhavan MV, Jimenez D, Chuich T, Dreyfus I, Driggin E, Nigoghossian C, Ageno W, Madjid M, Guo Y, Tang LV, Hu Y, Giri J, Cushman M, Quéré I, Dimakakos EP, Gibson CM, Lippi G, Favaloro EJ, Fareed J, Caprini JA, Tafur AJ, Burton JR, Francese DP, Wang EY, Falanga A, McLintock C, Hunt BJ, Spyropoulos AC, Barnes GD, Eikelboom JW, Weinberg I, Schulman S, Carrier M, Piazza G, Beckman JA, Steg PG, Stone GW, Rosenkranz S, Goldhaber SZ, Parikh SA, Monreal M, Krumholz HM, Konstantinides SV, Weitz JI, Lip GYH; Global COVID-19 Thrombosis Collaborative Group, Endorsed by the ISTH, NATF, ESVM, and the IUA, Supported by the ESC Working Group on Pulmonary Circulation and Right Ventricular Function. COVID-19 and Thrombotic or Thromboembolic Disease: Implications for Prevention, Antithrombotic Therapy, and Follow-Up: JACC State-of-the-Art Review. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020 Jun 16;75(23):2950-2973. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2020.04.031. Epub 2020 Apr 17. PMID: 32311448; PMCID: PMC7164881.
60. Romero-Castro RM, Ruiz-Cruz M, Alvarado-de la Barrera C, González-Cannata MG, Luna-Villalobos YA, García-Morales AK, Ablanedo-Terrazas Y, González-Navarro M, Ávila-Ríos S. POSTERIOR SEGMENT OCULAR FINDINGS IN CRITICALLY ILL PATIENTS WITH COVID-19. Retina. 2022 Apr 1;42(4):628-633. doi: 10.1097/IAE.0000000000003457. PMID: 35350045.
61. Lukiw WJ. David Hunter Hubel, the 'Circe effect', and SARS-CoV-2 infection of the human visual system. Front Biosci (Landmark Ed). 2022 Jan 6;27(1):7. doi: 10.31083/j.fbl2701007. PMID: 35090312.
62. Casagrande M, Fitzek A, Püschel K, Aleshcheva G, Schultheiss HP, Berneking L, Spitzer MS, Schultheiss M. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in Human Retinal Biopsies of Deceased COVID-19 Patients. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2020 Jul 3;28(5):721-725. doi: 10.1080/09273948.2020.1770301. Epub 2020 May 29. PMID: 32469258.
63. Riotto E, Mégevand V, Mégevand A, Marti C, Pugin J, Stangos AN, Marconi Archinto L, Sunaric Mégevand G. Retinal Manifestations in Patients with COVID-19: A Prospective Cohort Study. J Clin Med. 2022 Mar 25;11(7):1828. doi: 10.3390/jcm11071828. PMID: 35407441; PMCID: PMC8999406.
64. Avila J, Long B, Holladay D, Gottlieb M. Thrombotic complications of COVID-19. Am J Emerg Med. 2021 Jan;39:213-218. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2020.09.065. Epub 2020 Oct 1. PMID: 33036855; PMCID: PMC7528743.
65. Abrishami M, Emamverdian Z, Shoeibi N, Omidtabrizi A, Daneshvar R, Saeidi Rezvani T, Saeedian N, Eslami S, Mazloumi M, Sadda S, Sarraf D. Optical coherence tomography angiography analysis of the retina in patients recovered from COVID-19: a case-control study. Can J Ophthalmol. 2021 Feb;56(1):24-30. doi: 10.1016/j.jcjo.2020.11.006. Epub 2020 Nov 14. PMID: 33249111; PMCID: PMC7666612.
66. Turker IC, Dogan CU, Dirim AB, Guven D, Kutucu OK. Evaluation of early and late COVID-19-induced vascular changes with OCTA. Can J Ophthalmol. 2022 Aug;57(4):236-241. doi: 10.1016/j.jcjo.2021.05.001. Epub 2021 May 21. PMID: 34118187; PMCID: PMC8139253.
67. Naderi Beni A, Dehghani A, Kianersi F, Ghanbari H, Habibidastenae Z, Memarzadeh SE, Naderi Beni Z. Retinal findings of COVID-19 patients using ocular coherence tomography angiography two to three months after infection: Ocular appearance recovered COVID-19 patient. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther. 2022 Jun;38:102726. doi: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2022.102726. Epub 2022 Jan 17. PMID: 35051664; PMCID: PMC8762816.
68. Abrishami M, Hassanpour K, Hosseini S, Emamverdian Z, Ansari-Astaneh MR, Zamani G, Gharib B, Abrishami M. Macular vessel density reduction in patients recovered from COVID-19: a longitudinal optical coherence tomography angiography study. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2022 Mar;260(3):771-779. doi: 10.1007/s00417-021-05429-0. Epub 2021 Oct 12. PMID: 34636996; PMCID: PMC8505785.
69. Bayram N, Gundogan M, Ozsayg?l? C, Adelman RA. Posterior ocular structural and vascular alterations in severe COVID-19 patients. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2022 Mar;260(3):993-1004. doi: 10.1007/s00417-021-05420-9. Epub 2021 Oct 4. PMID: 34605953; PMCID: PMC8488325.
70. Gündo?an M, Vural E, Bayram N, Altunel O, Gündo?an F, Gökta? S. Change in retinal vessel diameter and choroidal thickness in patients with severe COVID-19: Change In Retinal Parameters In Patients With Severe COVID-19. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther. 2022 Mar;37:102674. doi: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2021.102674. Epub 2021 Dec 5. PMID: 34879296; PMCID: PMC8645280.
71. Banderas García S, Aragón D, Azarfane B, Trejo F, Garrell-Salat X, Sánchez-Montalvá A, Otero-Romero S, Garcia-Arumi J, Zapata MA. Persistent reduction of retinal microvascular vessel density in patients with moderate and severe COVID-19 disease. BMJ Open Ophthalmol. 2022 Jan 11;7(1):e000867. doi: 10.1136/bmjophth-2021-000867. PMID: 35039796; PMCID: PMC8753095.
72. Aydemir E, Aydemir GA, Atesoglu HI, Goker YS, Ozcelik KC, Kiziltoprak H. The Impact of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) on Retinal Microcirculation in Human Subjects. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd. 2021 Dec;238(12):1305-1311. English. doi: 10.1055/a-1579-0805. Epub 2021 Sep 29. PMID: 34587629.
73. Sanjay S, Agrawal S, Jayadev C, Kawali A, Gowda PB, Shetty R, Mahendradas P. Posterior segment manifestations and imaging features post-COVID-19. Med Hypothesis Discov Innov Ophthalmol. 2021 Nov 17;10(3):95-106. doi: 10.51329/mehdiophthal1427. PMID: 37641707; PMCID: PMC10460223.
74. Hösel K, von der Burchard C, Schunk D, Franzenburg J, Bahmer T, Frank D, Dargvainiene J, Roider JB. Okuläre Manifestationen bei COVID-19-Patienten [Ocular manifestations in patients with COVID-19]. Ophthalmologie. 2022 Aug;119(8):807-812. German. doi: 10.1007/s00347-022-01581-y. Epub 2022 Jan 28. PMID: 35089415; PMCID: PMC8796747.
75. Hodroj MH, Bashshur ZF, Wahab C, Jarrah K, Taher A. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)-associated central retinal vein occlusion: a case report and literature review. Archives of Hematology Case Reports and Reviews. 2022 Mar 3;7(1):009-12. doi: 10.17352/ahcrr.000037 (https://www.clinsurggroup.us/articles/AHCRR-7-137.php).
76. Jidigam VK, Singh R, Batoki JC, Milliner C, Sawant OB, Bonilha VL, Rao S. Histopathological assessments reveal retinal vascular changes, inflammation, and gliosis in patients with lethal COVID-19. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2022 Apr;260(4):1275-1288. doi: 10.1007/s00417-021-05460-1. Epub 2021 Oct 29. PMID: 34714382; PMCID: PMC8553591.
77. Eberhardt N, Noval MG, Kaur R, Amadori L, Gildea M, Sajja S, Das D, Cilhoroz B, Stewart O, Fernandez DM, Shamailova R, Guillen AV, Jangra S, Schotsaert M, Newman JD, Faries P, Maldonado T, Rockman C, Rapkiewicz A, Stapleford KA, Narula N, Moore KJ, Giannarelli C. SARS-CoV-2 infection triggers pro-atherogenic inflammatory responses in human coronary vessels. Nat Cardiovasc Res. 2023 Oct;2(10):899-916. doi: 10.1038/s44161-023-00336-5. Epub 2023 Sep 28. PMID: 38076343; PMCID: PMC10702930.
78. Abbati G, Fazi C, Fortunato P, Trapani S. Central retinal artery occlusion in a young child affected by COVID-19: a first case report. BMC Pediatr. 2023 Sep 13;23(1):462. doi: 10.1186/s12887-023-04276-8. PMID: 37704960; PMCID: PMC10500751.
79. Stawowski AR, Konopi?ska J, Stawowski SS, Adamczuk J, Groth M, Moniuszko-Malinowska A, Czupryna P. The Review of Ophthalmic Symptoms in COVID-19. Clin Ophthalmol. 2024 May 23;18:1417-1432. doi: 10.2147/OPTH.S460224. PMID: 38803556; PMCID: PMC11129748.
80. Looi MK. Covid-19: Scientists sound alarm over new BA.2.86 "Pirola" variant. BMJ. 2023 Aug 24;382:1964. doi: 10.1136/bmj.p1964. PMID: 37620014.
81. Ng HW, Scott DAR, Danesh-Meyer HV, Smith JR, McGhee CN, Niederer RL. Ocular manifestations of COVID-19. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2024 Sep;102:101285. doi: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2024.101285. Epub 2024 Jun 24. PMID: 38925508.
82. Eissa M, Abdelrazek NA, Saady M. Covid-19 and its relation to the human eye: transmission, infection, and ocular manifestations. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2023 Jul;261(7):1771-1780. doi: 10.1007/s00417-022-05954-6. Epub 2022 Dec 31. PMID: 36585987; PMCID: PMC9803899.
83. Patel NT, Martinek A, Shaikh R, Kahar P, Khanna D. COVID-19 and Its Ophthalmic Manifestations: A Literature Review. Cureus. 2024 Mar 5;16(3):e55571. doi: 10.7759/cureus.55571. PMID: 38576676; PMCID: PMC10993080.
84. Parmar UPS, Surico PL, Singh RB, Musa M, Scarabosio A, Surico G, Maniaci A, Lavalle S, D'Esposito F, Longo A, Russo A, Gagliano C, Zeppieri M. Ocular Implications of COVID-19 Infection and Vaccine-Related Adverse Events. J Pers Med. 2024 Jul 23;14(8):780. doi: 10.3390/jpm14080780. PMID: 39201972; PMCID: PMC11355216.
85. Salvetat ML, Zeppieri M. Management of COVID-19 in Ophthalmology. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2024;1457:401-429. doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-61939-7_23. PMID: 39283440.
86. Micevych PS, Stewart JM. Retinal and choroidal vascular diseases associated with COVID-19. InRetinal and Choroidal Vascular Diseases of the Eye 2024 Jan 1 (pp. 605-614). Academic Press. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-443-15583-3.00046-9 (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780443155833000469).
87. Lam WY, Au SCL. Big data are needed for analysis of the association of retinal vascular occlusion and COVID-19. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2023 Sep;261(9):2717-2718. doi: 10.1007/s00417-023-06043-y. Epub 2023 Apr 3. PMID: 37009962; PMCID: PMC10068241.
88. Chung YR, Yeo S, Kim H. Big data are needed for analysis of the association of retinal vascular occlusion and COVID-19. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2023 Sep;261(9):2719-2720. doi: 10.1007/s00417-023-06044-x. Epub 2023 Mar 28. PMID: 36976355; PMCID: PMC10043514.
2. Kim J, Byun SJ, Woo SJ, Park KH, Park SJ. Assessment of Trends in the Incidence Rates of Central Retinal Artery Occlusion in Korea From 2002 to 2015. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2021 Apr 1;139(4):399-405. doi: 10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2020.6860. PMID: 33570556; PMCID: PMC7879389.
3. Venkatesh R, Joshi A, Maltsev D, Munk M, Prabhu V, Bavaskar S, Mangla R, Ruamviboonsuk P, Chhablani J. Update on central retinal artery occlusion. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2024 Jul 1;72(7):945-955. doi: 10.4103/IJO.IJO_2826_23. Epub 2024 Jun 22. PMID: 38905460; PMCID: PMC11329807.
4. Schorr EM, Rossi KC, Stein LK, Park BL, Tuhrim S, Dhamoon MS. Characteristics and Outcomes of Retinal Artery Occlusion: Nationally Representative Data. Stroke. 2020 Mar;51(3):800-807. doi: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.119.027034. Epub 2020 Jan 17. PMID: 31951154.
5. Yusefi AR, Sharifi M, Nasabi NS, Rezabeigi Davarani E, Bastani P. Health human resources challenges during COVID-19 pandemic; evidence of a qualitative study in a developing country. PLoS One. 2022 Jan 24;17(1):e0262887. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0262887. PMID: 35073374; PMCID: PMC8786119.
6. Reviglio VE, Osaba M, Reviglio V, Chiaradia P, Kuo IC, O'Brien TP. COVID-19 and Ophthalmology: A New Chapter in an Old Story. Med Hypothesis Discov Innov Ophthalmol. 2020 Summer;9(2):71-73. Epub 2020 Mar 4. PMID: 32490013; PMCID: PMC7134243.
7. Hu K, Patel J, Swiston C, Patel BC. Ophthalmic Manifestations of Coronavirus (COVID-19). 2024 May 6. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan–. PMID: 32310553.
8. Jevnikar K, Jaki Mekjavic P, Vidovic Valentincic N, Petrovski G, Globocnik Petrovic M. An Update on COVID-19 Related Ophthalmic Manifestations. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2021 May 19;29(4):684-689. doi: 10.1080/09273948.2021.1896008. Epub 2021 Apr 7. PMID: 33826465.
9. Bertoli F, Veritti D, Danese C, Samassa F, Sarao V, Rassu N, Gambato T, Lanzetta P. Ocular Findings in COVID-19 Patients: A Review of Direct Manifestations and Indirect Effects on the Eye. J Ophthalmol. 2020 Aug 27;2020:4827304. doi: 10.1155/2020/4827304. PMID: 32963819; PMCID: PMC7491448.
10. Szcz??niak M, Brydak-Godowska J. SARS-CoV-2 and the Eyes: A Review of the Literature on Transmission, Detection, and Ocular Manifestations. Med Sci Monit. 2021 Sep 11;27:e931863. doi: 10.12659/MSM.931863. PMID: 34508064; PMCID: PMC8439119.
11. Keyal K, Wang F. Ophthalmic Manifestations in COVID-19 Patients, a Review. Discov Med. 2021 Jul-Aug;32(165):7-11. PMID: 35219351.
12. Roshanshad A, Ashraf MA, Roshanshad R, Kharmandar A, Zomorodian SA, Ashraf H. Ocular Manifestations of Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019: A Comprehensive Review. J Ophthalmic Vis Res. 2021 Apr 29;16(2):234-247. doi: 10.18502/jovr.v16i2.9087. PMID: 34055261; PMCID: PMC8126735.
13. Douglas KAA, Douglas VP, Moschos MM. Ocular Manifestations of COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2): A Critical Review of Current Literature. In Vivo. 2020 Jun;34(3 Suppl):1619-1628. doi: 10.21873/invivo.11952. PMID: 32503820; PMCID: PMC8378034.
14. Bal S, Chodosh J. Ocular Manifestations, Virulence, and Transmissibility of SARS-CoV-2: A Review of the Literature by Region. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 2022 Apr 1;62(2):1-18. doi: 10.1097/IIO.0000000000000420. PMID: 35325907.
15. Chougule N, Mangoli MV, Kumar A, Reddy VB, Tenagi AL. Ocular manifestations in SARS COVID admitted patients: A hospital-based study. Indian Journal of Health Sciences and Biomedical Research kleu. 2022 Jan 1;15(1):46-9. doi: 10.4103/kleuhsj.kleuhsj_168_21 (https://journals.lww.com/kleu/fulltext/2022/15010/ocular_manifestations_in_sars_covid_admitted.9.aspx).
16. Tran E, Phu V, Xu R, Teoderascu A, Aly M, Shah N, Malvankar-Mehta MS. Ocular manifestations of COVID-19: systematic review and meta-analysis. Can J Ophthalmol. 2024 Oct;59(5):e435-e452. doi: 10.1016/j.jcjo.2023.08.003. Epub 2023 Sep 5. PMID: 37683691.
17. Rokohl AC, Grajewski RS, Matos PAW, Kopecky A, Heindl LM, Cursiefen C. Ocular Involvement in COVID-19: Conjunctivitis and More. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd. 2021 May;238(5):555-560. English, German. doi: 10.1055/a-1344-8138. Epub 2021 May 21. PMID: 34020483.
18. Madani S. Acute and sub-acute ocular manifestations in pediatric patients with COVID-19: A systematic review. Med Hypothesis Discov Innov Ophthalmol. 2022 Apr 1;11(1):11-18. doi: 10.51329/mehdiophthal1440. PMID: 37641695; PMCID: PMC10445324.
19. D'Alessandro E, Kawasaki A, Eandi CM. Pathogenesis of Vascular Retinal Manifestations in COVID-19 Patients: A Review. Biomedicines. 2022 Oct 26;10(11):2710. doi: 10.3390/biomedicines10112710. PMID: 36359227; PMCID: PMC9687698.
20. Invernizzi A. The impact of COVID-19 on the retina: clinical features and management considerations. Expert Review of Ophthalmology. 2022 Jan 2;17(1):53-60. doi:10.1080/17469899.2022.2021877 (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17469899.2022.2021877).
21. Sanghi P, Malik M, Hossain IT, Manzouri B. Ocular Complications in the Prone Position in the Critical Care Setting: The COVID-19 Pandemic. J Intensive Care Med. 2021 Mar;36(3):361-372. doi: 10.1177/0885066620959031. Epub 2020 Sep 28. PMID: 32985317.
22. Au SC, Ko CK. Prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 among central retinal artery occlusion patients: A case series-HORA study report No. 3. Journal of Acute Disease. 2021 Jul 1;10(4):147-9. doi: : 10.4103/2221-6189.318644 (https://journals.lww.com/joad/fulltext/2021/10040/Prevalence_of_SARS_CoV_2_among_central_retinal.3.aspx).
23. Fonollosa A, Hernández-Rodríguez J, Cuadros C, Giralt L, Sacristán C, Artaraz J, Pelegrín L, Olate-Pérez Á, Romero R, Pastor-Idoate S, Sobas Bsc EM, Fernández-Fidalgo S, Abraldes MJ, Oleñik A, Insausti-García A, Torres P, Porcar C, Lorca DR, Adan A; Spanish Society of Ocular Inflammation (SEIOC); Spanish Society of Ocular Inflammation (SEIOC). CHARACTERIZING COVID-19-RELATED RETINAL VASCULAR OCCLUSIONS: A Case Series and Review of the Literature. Retina. 2022 Mar 1;42(3):465-475. doi: 10.1097/IAE.0000000000003327. PMID: 34914345.
24. Acharya S, Diamond M, Anwar S, Glaser A, Tyagi P. Unique case of central retinal artery occlusion secondary to COVID-19 disease. IDCases. 2020;21:e00867. doi: 10.1016/j.idcr.2020.e00867. Epub 2020 Jun 18. PMID: 32572363; PMCID: PMC7301806.
25. Montesel A, Bucolo C, Mouvet V, Moret E, Eandi CM. Case Report: Central Retinal Artery Occlusion in a COVID-19 Patient. Front Pharmacol. 2020 Dec 23;11:588384. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2020.588384. PMID: 33424598; PMCID: PMC7785811.
26. Turedi N, Onal Gunay B. Paracentral acute middle maculopathy in the setting of central retinal artery occlusion following COVID-19 diagnosis. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2022 May;32(3):NP62-NP66. doi: 10.1177/1120672121995347. Epub 2021 Feb 14. PMID: 33583231; PMCID: PMC9111906.
27. Latigan KL, Latigan DA, Dubnov KE, Bykova EV, Nefedov DA. A clinical case of central retinal artery occlusion after pneumonia caused by SARS-COV-2 (COVID-19). Acta Biomed Sci. 2021;6:41-7. doi: 10.29413/ABS.2021-6.6-1.5 (https://www.actabiomedica.ru/jour/article/view/3109).
28. Ucar F, Cetinkaya S. Central retinal artery occlusion in a patient who contracted COVID-19 and review of similar cases. BMJ Case Rep. 2021 Jul 27;14(7):e244181. doi: 10.1136/bcr-2021-244181. PMID: 34315751; PMCID: PMC8317104.
29. Been Sayeed SKJ, Chandra Das S, Mahmud R, Moniruzzaman M, Rahman MM. Acute Ischemic Stroke With Central Retinal Artery Occlusion as a Rare Presentation of COVID-19 Disease. Cureus. 2021 Aug 26;13(8):e17469. doi: 10.7759/cureus.17469. PMID: 34589363; PMCID: PMC8464349.
30. Sweid A, Hammoud B, Weinberg JH, Oneissi M, Raz E, Shapiro M, DePrince M, Tjoumakaris S, Gooch MR, Herial NA, Zarzour H, Romo V, Rosenwasser RH, Jabbour P. Letter: Thrombotic Neurovascular Disease in COVID-19 Patients. Neurosurgery. 2020 Sep 1;87(3):E400-E406. doi: 10.1093/neuros/nyaa254. PMID: 32496534; PMCID: PMC7313768.
31. Murchison AP, Sweid A, Dharia R, Theofanis TN, Tjoumakaris SI, Jabbour PM, Bilyk JR. Monocular visual loss as the presenting symptom of COVID-19 infection. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2021 Feb;201:106440. doi: 10.1016/j.clineuro.2020.106440. Epub 2020 Dec 15. PMID: 33383464; PMCID: PMC7831816.
32. Paul L, Jain T, Singh S. Retinal manifestations of ophthalmic artery occlusion with ischemic stroke in a young patient with COVID-19. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2022 Apr;70(4):1415-1417. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_2828_21. PMID: 35326070; PMCID: PMC9240522.
33. Jervis M, Purohit K, Greener V, Kumar R. Thromboembolic Storm in the Recovering Stage of COVID-19: A Case Report. EMJ. 2022 Mar;7(1):22-7. doi: 10.33590/emj/21-00210 (https://www.emjreviews.com/flagship-journal/article/eds-pick-thromboembolic-storm-in-the-recovering-stage-of-covid-19-a-case-report-j190121/).
34. Shroff D, Kumar S, Naidu A, Gupta C, Shroff CM. Retinal vasoocclusive spectrum following COVID-19. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2022 Apr;70(4):1412-1415. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_2837_21. PMID: 35326069; PMCID: PMC9240570.
35. Bapaye MM, Nair AG, Bapaye CM, Bapaye MM, Shukla JJ. Simultaneous Bilateral Central Retinal Artery Occlusion following COVID-19 Infection. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2021 May 19;29(4):671-674. doi: 10.1080/09273948.2021.1891262. Epub 2021 Apr 15. PMID: 33856275.
36. Karahan M, Erdem S, Hazar L, Dursun ME, Ava S, Emek H, Keklikci U. Bilateral Central Retinal Artery Occlusion Secondary to SARS-CoV-2 Infection in the Early and Late Periods: A Case Report. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd. 2021 Dec;238(12):1325-1327. English. doi: 10.1055/a-1353-5915. Epub 2021 Feb 19. PMID: 33607682.
37. Walinjkar JA. Combined Retinal Vascular Occlusion in a Recovered Case of COVID-19. Apollo Medicine. 2021 Jul 1;18(3):205-7. doi: 10.4103/am.am_38_21 (https://journals.lww.com/apmd/fulltext/2021/18030/combined_retinal_vascular_occlusion_in_a_recovered.14.aspx).
38. Sanjay S, Srinivasan P, Jayadev C, Mahendradas P, Gupta A, Kawali A, Shetty R. Post COVID-19 Ophthalmic Manifestations in an Asian Indian Male. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2021 May 19;29(4):656-661. doi: 10.1080/09273948.2020.1870147. Epub 2021 Mar 18. PMID: 33733987.
39. Raj A, Kaur N, Kaur N. Cavernous sinus thrombosis with central retinal artey occlusion in COVID-19: A case report and review of literature. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2021 May;69(5):1327-1329. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_3770_20. PMID: 33913893; PMCID: PMC8186592.
40. Larochelle RD, Koduri VA, Chen RC, Subramanian PS. Embolic Abducens Palsy and Central Retinal Artery Occlusion in a Patient With COVID-19. J Neuroophthalmol. 2022 Jun 1;42(2):e500-e501. doi: 10.1097/WNO.0000000000001291. PMID: 33813532.
41. Yalç?nbay?r Ö, Uçan Gündüz G, Co?kun F, Hakyemez B, Do?anay S. Different Cases, Different Manifestations of Post-COVID-19 Retinal Artery Occlusion: A Case Series. Turk J Ophthalmol. 2023 Apr 20;53(2):124-129. doi: 10.4274/tjo.galenos.2022.36930. PMID: 37089035; PMCID: PMC10127544.
42. Heidarzadeh HR, Abrishami M, Motamed Shariati M, Ghavami Shahri SH, Ansari Astaneh MR. Atypical Central Retinal Artery Occlusion following COVID-19 Infection: A Case Report. Case Rep Ophthalmol. 2023 Aug 30;14(1):405-410. doi: 10.1159/000532108. PMID: 37901628; PMCID: PMC10601811.
43. de Oliveira MR, Lucena ARV, Higino TM, Ventura CV. Central retinal artery occlusion with cilioretinal artery sparing secondary to COVID-19: Additional ocular complication. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2023 Feb;71(2):663-666. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_1246_22. PMID: 36727384; PMCID: PMC10228942.
44. Blyden KM, Fashina T, Randleman C, Pearce W, Wells J, Yeh S, Shantha JG. Ocular Ischemic Events and Vision Loss Associated with COVID-19 Acute Hypoxic Respiratory Failure. COVID. 2024 Jun 27;4(7):890-5. doi: 10.3390/covid4070061 (https://www.mdpi.com/2673-8112/4/7/61)
45. Uzun A, Keles Sahin A, Bektas O. A Unique Case of Branch Retinal Artery Occlusion Associated with a Relatively Mild Coronavirus Disease 2019. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2021 May 19;29(4):715-718. doi: 10.1080/09273948.2021.1933071. Epub 2021 Jul 12. PMID: 34252339.
46. Nourinia R, Ghassempour M, Ahmadieh H, Abtahi SH. Branch retinal vein occlusion after COVID-19. J Fr Ophtalmol. 2021 Oct;44(8):e441-e443. doi: 10.1016/j.jfo.2021.06.003. Epub 2021 Jul 8. PMID: 34325925; PMCID: PMC8264517.
47. Ate? O, Y?ld?r?m M, Y?ld?r?m K. Branch Retinal Artery Occlusion in Patient with COVID-19: Case Report. Korean J Ophthalmol. 2021 Dec;35(6):484-485. doi: 10.3341/kjo.2021.0008. Epub 2021 Sep 6. PMID: 34488254; PMCID: PMC8666251.
48. Jiang Z, Ji H, Zhang H, Dong Z, Dong J. Branch retinal artery occlusion in a patient with COVID-19 infection: A case report. J Int Med Res. 2024 Oct;52(10):3000605241284931. doi: 10.1177/03000605241284931. PMID: 39351991; PMCID: PMC11529667.
49. Au SCL, Ko CKL. Central Retinal Artery Occlusion in Patients with COVID-19: Imaging for Underlying Causes. Radiology. 2021 Jul;300(1):E315. doi: 10.1148/radiol.2021210479. Epub 2021 Mar 30. PMID: 33787341; PMCID: PMC8893177.
50. Lecler A, Cotton F, Lersy F, Kremer S, Héran F; SFNR's COVID Study Group. Ocular MRI Findings in Patients with Severe COVID-19: A Retrospective Multicenter Observational Study. Radiology. 2021 May;299(2):E226-E229. doi: 10.1148/radiol.2021204394. Epub 2021 Feb 16. Erratum in: Radiology. 2022 Jan;302(1):E4. doi: 10.1148/radiol.2021219025. PMID: 33591889; PMCID: PMC7887777.
51. Connors JM, Levy JH. COVID-19 and its implications for thrombosis and anticoagulation. Blood. 2020 Jun 4;135(23):2033-2040. doi: 10.1182/blood.2020006000. PMID: 32339221; PMCID: PMC7273827.
52. Gavriilaki E, Brodsky RA. Severe COVID-19 infection and thrombotic microangiopathy: success does not come easily. Br J Haematol. 2020 Jun;189(6):e227-e230. doi: 10.1111/bjh.16783. Epub 2020 May 23. PMID: 32369610.
53. Levi M, Thachil J, Iba T, Levy JH. Coagulation abnormalities and thrombosis in patients with COVID-19. Lancet Haematol. 2020 Jun;7(6):e438-e440. doi: 10.1016/S2352-3026(20)30145-9. Epub 2020 May 11. PMID: 32407672; PMCID: PMC7213964.
54. Terpos E, Ntanasis-Stathopoulos I, Elalamy I, Kastritis E, Sergentanis TN, Politou M, Psaltopoulou T, Gerotziafas G, Dimopoulos MA. Hematological findings and complications of COVID-19. Am J Hematol. 2020 Jul;95(7):834-847. doi: 10.1002/ajh.25829. Epub 2020 May 23. PMID: 32282949; PMCID: PMC7262337.
55. Iba T, Connors JM, Levy JH. The coagulopathy, endotheliopathy, and vasculitis of COVID-19. Inflamm Res. 2020 Dec;69(12):1181-1189. doi: 10.1007/s00011-020-01401-6. Epub 2020 Sep 12. PMID: 32918567; PMCID: PMC7486586.
56. Mancuso P, Gidaro A, Gregato G, Raveane A, Cremonesi P, Quarna J, Caccia S, Gusso L, Rusconi S, Giacomelli A, Cogliati C, Bertolini F. Circulating endothelial progenitors are increased in COVID-19 patients and correlate with SARS-CoV-2 RNA in severe cases. J Thromb Haemost. 2020 Oct;18(10):2744-2750. doi: 10.1111/jth.15044. Epub 2020 Aug 31. PMID: 32762140; PMCID: PMC7436444.
57. Quinaglia T, Shabani M, Breder I, Silber HA, Lima JAC, Sposito AC. Coronavirus disease-19: The multi-level, multi-faceted vasculopathy. Atherosclerosis. 2021 Apr;322:39-50. doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2021.02.009. Epub 2021 Feb 15. PMID: 33706082; PMCID: PMC7883684.
58. Pérez-Mies B, Gómez-Rojo M, Carretero-Barrio I, Bardi T, Benito A, García-Cosío M, Caballero Á, de Pablo R, Galán JC, Pestaña D, Palacios J. Pulmonary vascular proliferation in patients with severe COVID-19: an autopsy study. Thorax. 2021 Oct;76(10):1044-1046. doi: 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2020-216714. Epub 2021 Mar 23. PMID: 33758071; PMCID: PMC7992389.
59. Bikdeli B, Madhavan MV, Jimenez D, Chuich T, Dreyfus I, Driggin E, Nigoghossian C, Ageno W, Madjid M, Guo Y, Tang LV, Hu Y, Giri J, Cushman M, Quéré I, Dimakakos EP, Gibson CM, Lippi G, Favaloro EJ, Fareed J, Caprini JA, Tafur AJ, Burton JR, Francese DP, Wang EY, Falanga A, McLintock C, Hunt BJ, Spyropoulos AC, Barnes GD, Eikelboom JW, Weinberg I, Schulman S, Carrier M, Piazza G, Beckman JA, Steg PG, Stone GW, Rosenkranz S, Goldhaber SZ, Parikh SA, Monreal M, Krumholz HM, Konstantinides SV, Weitz JI, Lip GYH; Global COVID-19 Thrombosis Collaborative Group, Endorsed by the ISTH, NATF, ESVM, and the IUA, Supported by the ESC Working Group on Pulmonary Circulation and Right Ventricular Function. COVID-19 and Thrombotic or Thromboembolic Disease: Implications for Prevention, Antithrombotic Therapy, and Follow-Up: JACC State-of-the-Art Review. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020 Jun 16;75(23):2950-2973. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2020.04.031. Epub 2020 Apr 17. PMID: 32311448; PMCID: PMC7164881.
60. Romero-Castro RM, Ruiz-Cruz M, Alvarado-de la Barrera C, González-Cannata MG, Luna-Villalobos YA, García-Morales AK, Ablanedo-Terrazas Y, González-Navarro M, Ávila-Ríos S. POSTERIOR SEGMENT OCULAR FINDINGS IN CRITICALLY ILL PATIENTS WITH COVID-19. Retina. 2022 Apr 1;42(4):628-633. doi: 10.1097/IAE.0000000000003457. PMID: 35350045.
61. Lukiw WJ. David Hunter Hubel, the 'Circe effect', and SARS-CoV-2 infection of the human visual system. Front Biosci (Landmark Ed). 2022 Jan 6;27(1):7. doi: 10.31083/j.fbl2701007. PMID: 35090312.
62. Casagrande M, Fitzek A, Püschel K, Aleshcheva G, Schultheiss HP, Berneking L, Spitzer MS, Schultheiss M. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in Human Retinal Biopsies of Deceased COVID-19 Patients. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2020 Jul 3;28(5):721-725. doi: 10.1080/09273948.2020.1770301. Epub 2020 May 29. PMID: 32469258.
63. Riotto E, Mégevand V, Mégevand A, Marti C, Pugin J, Stangos AN, Marconi Archinto L, Sunaric Mégevand G. Retinal Manifestations in Patients with COVID-19: A Prospective Cohort Study. J Clin Med. 2022 Mar 25;11(7):1828. doi: 10.3390/jcm11071828. PMID: 35407441; PMCID: PMC8999406.
64. Avila J, Long B, Holladay D, Gottlieb M. Thrombotic complications of COVID-19. Am J Emerg Med. 2021 Jan;39:213-218. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2020.09.065. Epub 2020 Oct 1. PMID: 33036855; PMCID: PMC7528743.
65. Abrishami M, Emamverdian Z, Shoeibi N, Omidtabrizi A, Daneshvar R, Saeidi Rezvani T, Saeedian N, Eslami S, Mazloumi M, Sadda S, Sarraf D. Optical coherence tomography angiography analysis of the retina in patients recovered from COVID-19: a case-control study. Can J Ophthalmol. 2021 Feb;56(1):24-30. doi: 10.1016/j.jcjo.2020.11.006. Epub 2020 Nov 14. PMID: 33249111; PMCID: PMC7666612.
66. Turker IC, Dogan CU, Dirim AB, Guven D, Kutucu OK. Evaluation of early and late COVID-19-induced vascular changes with OCTA. Can J Ophthalmol. 2022 Aug;57(4):236-241. doi: 10.1016/j.jcjo.2021.05.001. Epub 2021 May 21. PMID: 34118187; PMCID: PMC8139253.
67. Naderi Beni A, Dehghani A, Kianersi F, Ghanbari H, Habibidastenae Z, Memarzadeh SE, Naderi Beni Z. Retinal findings of COVID-19 patients using ocular coherence tomography angiography two to three months after infection: Ocular appearance recovered COVID-19 patient. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther. 2022 Jun;38:102726. doi: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2022.102726. Epub 2022 Jan 17. PMID: 35051664; PMCID: PMC8762816.
68. Abrishami M, Hassanpour K, Hosseini S, Emamverdian Z, Ansari-Astaneh MR, Zamani G, Gharib B, Abrishami M. Macular vessel density reduction in patients recovered from COVID-19: a longitudinal optical coherence tomography angiography study. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2022 Mar;260(3):771-779. doi: 10.1007/s00417-021-05429-0. Epub 2021 Oct 12. PMID: 34636996; PMCID: PMC8505785.
69. Bayram N, Gundogan M, Ozsayg?l? C, Adelman RA. Posterior ocular structural and vascular alterations in severe COVID-19 patients. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2022 Mar;260(3):993-1004. doi: 10.1007/s00417-021-05420-9. Epub 2021 Oct 4. PMID: 34605953; PMCID: PMC8488325.
70. Gündo?an M, Vural E, Bayram N, Altunel O, Gündo?an F, Gökta? S. Change in retinal vessel diameter and choroidal thickness in patients with severe COVID-19: Change In Retinal Parameters In Patients With Severe COVID-19. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther. 2022 Mar;37:102674. doi: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2021.102674. Epub 2021 Dec 5. PMID: 34879296; PMCID: PMC8645280.
71. Banderas García S, Aragón D, Azarfane B, Trejo F, Garrell-Salat X, Sánchez-Montalvá A, Otero-Romero S, Garcia-Arumi J, Zapata MA. Persistent reduction of retinal microvascular vessel density in patients with moderate and severe COVID-19 disease. BMJ Open Ophthalmol. 2022 Jan 11;7(1):e000867. doi: 10.1136/bmjophth-2021-000867. PMID: 35039796; PMCID: PMC8753095.
72. Aydemir E, Aydemir GA, Atesoglu HI, Goker YS, Ozcelik KC, Kiziltoprak H. The Impact of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) on Retinal Microcirculation in Human Subjects. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd. 2021 Dec;238(12):1305-1311. English. doi: 10.1055/a-1579-0805. Epub 2021 Sep 29. PMID: 34587629.
73. Sanjay S, Agrawal S, Jayadev C, Kawali A, Gowda PB, Shetty R, Mahendradas P. Posterior segment manifestations and imaging features post-COVID-19. Med Hypothesis Discov Innov Ophthalmol. 2021 Nov 17;10(3):95-106. doi: 10.51329/mehdiophthal1427. PMID: 37641707; PMCID: PMC10460223.
74. Hösel K, von der Burchard C, Schunk D, Franzenburg J, Bahmer T, Frank D, Dargvainiene J, Roider JB. Okuläre Manifestationen bei COVID-19-Patienten [Ocular manifestations in patients with COVID-19]. Ophthalmologie. 2022 Aug;119(8):807-812. German. doi: 10.1007/s00347-022-01581-y. Epub 2022 Jan 28. PMID: 35089415; PMCID: PMC8796747.
75. Hodroj MH, Bashshur ZF, Wahab C, Jarrah K, Taher A. Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)-associated central retinal vein occlusion: a case report and literature review. Archives of Hematology Case Reports and Reviews. 2022 Mar 3;7(1):009-12. doi: 10.17352/ahcrr.000037 (https://www.clinsurggroup.us/articles/AHCRR-7-137.php).
76. Jidigam VK, Singh R, Batoki JC, Milliner C, Sawant OB, Bonilha VL, Rao S. Histopathological assessments reveal retinal vascular changes, inflammation, and gliosis in patients with lethal COVID-19. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2022 Apr;260(4):1275-1288. doi: 10.1007/s00417-021-05460-1. Epub 2021 Oct 29. PMID: 34714382; PMCID: PMC8553591.
77. Eberhardt N, Noval MG, Kaur R, Amadori L, Gildea M, Sajja S, Das D, Cilhoroz B, Stewart O, Fernandez DM, Shamailova R, Guillen AV, Jangra S, Schotsaert M, Newman JD, Faries P, Maldonado T, Rockman C, Rapkiewicz A, Stapleford KA, Narula N, Moore KJ, Giannarelli C. SARS-CoV-2 infection triggers pro-atherogenic inflammatory responses in human coronary vessels. Nat Cardiovasc Res. 2023 Oct;2(10):899-916. doi: 10.1038/s44161-023-00336-5. Epub 2023 Sep 28. PMID: 38076343; PMCID: PMC10702930.
78. Abbati G, Fazi C, Fortunato P, Trapani S. Central retinal artery occlusion in a young child affected by COVID-19: a first case report. BMC Pediatr. 2023 Sep 13;23(1):462. doi: 10.1186/s12887-023-04276-8. PMID: 37704960; PMCID: PMC10500751.
79. Stawowski AR, Konopi?ska J, Stawowski SS, Adamczuk J, Groth M, Moniuszko-Malinowska A, Czupryna P. The Review of Ophthalmic Symptoms in COVID-19. Clin Ophthalmol. 2024 May 23;18:1417-1432. doi: 10.2147/OPTH.S460224. PMID: 38803556; PMCID: PMC11129748.
80. Looi MK. Covid-19: Scientists sound alarm over new BA.2.86 "Pirola" variant. BMJ. 2023 Aug 24;382:1964. doi: 10.1136/bmj.p1964. PMID: 37620014.
81. Ng HW, Scott DAR, Danesh-Meyer HV, Smith JR, McGhee CN, Niederer RL. Ocular manifestations of COVID-19. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2024 Sep;102:101285. doi: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2024.101285. Epub 2024 Jun 24. PMID: 38925508.
82. Eissa M, Abdelrazek NA, Saady M. Covid-19 and its relation to the human eye: transmission, infection, and ocular manifestations. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2023 Jul;261(7):1771-1780. doi: 10.1007/s00417-022-05954-6. Epub 2022 Dec 31. PMID: 36585987; PMCID: PMC9803899.
83. Patel NT, Martinek A, Shaikh R, Kahar P, Khanna D. COVID-19 and Its Ophthalmic Manifestations: A Literature Review. Cureus. 2024 Mar 5;16(3):e55571. doi: 10.7759/cureus.55571. PMID: 38576676; PMCID: PMC10993080.
84. Parmar UPS, Surico PL, Singh RB, Musa M, Scarabosio A, Surico G, Maniaci A, Lavalle S, D'Esposito F, Longo A, Russo A, Gagliano C, Zeppieri M. Ocular Implications of COVID-19 Infection and Vaccine-Related Adverse Events. J Pers Med. 2024 Jul 23;14(8):780. doi: 10.3390/jpm14080780. PMID: 39201972; PMCID: PMC11355216.
85. Salvetat ML, Zeppieri M. Management of COVID-19 in Ophthalmology. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2024;1457:401-429. doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-61939-7_23. PMID: 39283440.
86. Micevych PS, Stewart JM. Retinal and choroidal vascular diseases associated with COVID-19. InRetinal and Choroidal Vascular Diseases of the Eye 2024 Jan 1 (pp. 605-614). Academic Press. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-443-15583-3.00046-9 (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780443155833000469).
87. Lam WY, Au SCL. Big data are needed for analysis of the association of retinal vascular occlusion and COVID-19. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2023 Sep;261(9):2717-2718. doi: 10.1007/s00417-023-06043-y. Epub 2023 Apr 3. PMID: 37009962; PMCID: PMC10068241.
88. Chung YR, Yeo S, Kim H. Big data are needed for analysis of the association of retinal vascular occlusion and COVID-19. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2023 Sep;261(9):2719-2720. doi: 10.1007/s00417-023-06044-x. Epub 2023 Mar 28. PMID: 36976355; PMCID: PMC10043514.
- Abstract Viewed: 0 times
- Full Text PDF Downloaded: 0 times